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Copernicus (and Galileo)

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Polish astronomer who produced a workable model of the solar system with the sun in the center (1473-1543). (and another of the same idea)

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Martin Luther

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German theologian and leader of the Reformation. His opposition to the wealth and corruption of the papacy and his belief that salvation would be granted on the basis of faith alone rather than by works caused his excommunication from the Catholic Church (1521). Luther confirmed the Augsburg Confession in 1530, effectively establishing the Lutheran Church.

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Elizabeth I

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The daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn (who was beheaded for incest and adultery that she most likely did not commit), who assumed the throne when Mary Tudor died. She was a Protestant and returned England to the Anglican Church, which had been established under her father. This ended the disconcerting switches the people and clergy of England had experience during the reigns of her father and half-sister, though this second reformation was more extreme than the first, and included Calvinist principles.

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Louis XIV

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king of France from 1643 to 1715; his long reign was marked by the expansion of French influence in Europe and by the magnificence of his court and the Palace of Versailles (1638-1715). Absolutist- he used versailles to keep checks on the nobility and to limit their power.

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Peter the Great

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czar of Russia who introduced ideas from western Europe to reform the government.He was an absolutist and limited the power of the Strelsky and the Boyars through execution; led the westernization of Russia

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Adam Smith

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capitalism; invisible hand; , Scottish economist who advocated private enterprise and free trade (1723-1790). wrote wealth of nations in 1776 and instigated lassiez-faire

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Napoleon Bonaparte

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a french general who overthrew the French Directory in 1799 and became emperor of the French in 1804. Failed to defeat Great Britain and abdicated in 1814. Returned to power briefly in 1815 but was defeated and died in exile.

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Metternich

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a German-Austrian politician and statesman, and one of the most important diplomats of his era. He was a major figure on the negotiations leading to and at the Congress of Vienna and is considered both a paradigm of foreign policy management and a major figure on the development of diplomacy. Wanted to promote peace, conservatism, and the repression of liberal nationalism throughout Europe.

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Karl Marx

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German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary. With the help and support of Friedrich Engels he wrote The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867-1894). These works explain historical development in terms of the interaction of contradictory economic forces, form the basis of all communist theory, and have had a profound influence on the social sciences. The founder of modern communism

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Charles Darwin

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English naturalist. He studied the plants and animals of South America and the Pacific islands, and in his book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859) set forth his theory of evolution- natural selection. (p. 715)

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Otto van Bismarck

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Prime Minister of Prussia (largest state in Northern Germany); wanted a greater, unified Germany (smaller Southern states to join Prussia; preferred "iron and blood" to diplomacy. Led the unification of Germany in 1871

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Lenin

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founded the Communist Party (bolsheviks) in Russia and set up the world's first Communist Party dictatorship. He led the October Revolution of 1917, in which the Communists seized power in Russia. He then ruled the country until his death in 1924.

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Sigmund Freud

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Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis (1856-1939); Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do). Had the ideas of child sexuality- oedipus and electra complexes

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Medici Family

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Dominating and wealthy family that ruled Florence during the Renaissance, became wealthy from banking, spent a lot of money on art, controlled Florence for about 3 centuries

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Petrach

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the father of humanism; A man sometimes called the father of Italian Renaissance humanism.

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Machiavelli

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wrote The Prince; a statesman of Florence who advocated a strong central government (1469-1527)

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Donatello

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Florentine sculptor famous for his lifelike sculptures (1386-1466); e.g. David (girlier one, black stone)

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Leonardo Da Vinci

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THE Renaissance man; , Italian painter, engineer, musician, and scientist. The most versatile genius of the Renaissance, Leonardo filled notebooks with engineering and scientific observations that were in some cases centuries ahead of their time. As a painter Leonardo is best known for The Last Supper (c. 1495) and Mona Lisa (c. 1503).

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Michaelangelo

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One of the great Italian artists. He was known as a master. He not only painted portraits, but also designed buildings, wrote poetry, and painted murals on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican. frescoes

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Raphael

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Italian painter whose many paintings exemplify the ideals of the High Renaissance (1483-1520)- school of athens

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Botticelli

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birth of venus; , Italian painter of mythological and religious paintings (1444-1510)

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Erasmus

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Dutch humanist and theologian who was the leading Renaissance scholar of northern Europe

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Thomas More

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English statesman and humanist who opposed Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine of Aragon and was imprisoned and beheaded

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Cervantes

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Spanish writer best remembered for 'Don Quixote' which satirizes chivalry and influenced the development of the novel form (1547-1616)

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Rembrandt

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Dutch painter, who painted portraits of wealthy middle-class merchants and used sharp contrasts of light and shadow to draw attention to his focus

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Jan Van Eyck

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Flemish painter who was a founder of the Flemish school of painting and who pioneered modern techniques of oil painting (1390-1441). Arnolfini Wedding

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John Calvin

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Swiss theologian (born in France) whose tenets (predestination and the irresistibility of grace and justification by faith) defined Presbyterianism (1509-1564) and calvinism. involved in french reformation

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Henry VIII

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(1491-1547) King of England from 1509 to 1547; his desire to annul his marriage led to a conflict with the pope, England's break with the Roman Catholic Church, and its embrace of Protestantism. Henry established the Church of England in 1532.- launched england's protestant reformation

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Mary I

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Daughter of King Henry, returned england to catholicism wiht violence and blood

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Ignatius Loyola

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founder of the Jesuit order (society of Jesus)-catholic, resisted the spread of Protestantism, wrote Spiritual Exercises.

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Prince Henry the Navigator

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(1394-1460) Prince of Portugal who established an observatory and school of navigation at Sagres and directed voyages that spurred the growth of Portugal's colonial empire. thought that explorers could find a shortcut around Africa to Asia

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Vasco da Gama

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Portuguese explorer. In 1497-1498 he led the first naval expedition from Europe to sail to India, opening an important commercial sea route.

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Cortez and Pizarro

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Spanish conquistador who defeated the Aztecs and conquered Mexico (1485-1547) and another Spanish explorer who conquered the Incas in what is now Peru and founded the city of Lima

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Philip II

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king of Spain and Portugal and husband of Mary I

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James I

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the first Stuart to be king of England and Ireland from 1603 to 1925 and king of Scotland from 1567 to 1625

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Charles I

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son of James I who was King of England and Scotland and Ireland

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Oliver Cromwell

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English military, political, and religious figure who led the Parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War (1642-1649) and called for the execution of Charles I. As lord protector of England (1653-1658) he ruled as a virtual dictator., Lord Protector

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Charles II

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King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1660-1685) who reigned during the Restoration, a period of expanding trade and colonization as well as strong opposition to Catholicism

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James II

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the last Stuart to be king of England and Ireland and Scotland;, This was the Catholic king of England after Charles II that granted everyone religious freedom and even appointed Roman Catholics to positions in the army and government

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William and Mary

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King and Queen of England in 1688. With them, King James' Catholic reign ended. As they were Protestant, the Puritans were pleased because only protestants could be office-holders. Ruled after Glorious Revolution-1688

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Catherine de Medici

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wife of Henry II of France, had three sons: Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III whom she tried to control the country through. Member of the Italian Medici banking family;

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Colbert

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a finance minister under Louis XIV that applied mercantilism to France to help increase revenue

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Cardinal Richelieu

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minister of King Louis XVIII, appointed by Marie de Medici , had the real power, wanted to curb power of nobility, 32 generalities, military provinces France was divided into

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Henry IV of navarre

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A politique whose rise to power ended the French Civil Wars; converted to Catholicism to gain loyalty of Paris, but privately remained a Calvinist and issued Edict of Nantes

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Frederick II (the great)

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Monarch of Prussia during War of Austrian Succesion, gained absolute power, Holenzollerns Dynasty, attacked Silesia (Maria Theresa) which led to a rivalry between Austria and Prussia

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Benito Mussolini

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Italian facism; , Fascist dictator of Italy (1922-1943). He led Italy to conquer Ethiopia (1935), joined Germany in the Axis pact (1936), and allied Italy with Germany in World War II. He was overthrown in 1943 when the Allies invaded Italy. (p. 786)

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Adolf Hitler

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This dictator was the leader of the Nazi Party. He believed that strong leadership was required to save Germanic society, which was at risk due to Jewish, socialist, democratic, and liberal forces.WWII:1939-1945, Holocaust

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Leon Trotsky

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Russian revolutionary and Communist theorist who helped Lenin and built up the army, Supporter of Lenin who helped in the takeover of Petrograd and the Bolshevik revolution

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Stalin

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Russian leader who succeeded Lenin as head of the Communist Party and created a totalitarian state by purging all opposition (1879-1953)

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Winston Churchill

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A noted British statesman who led Britain throughout most of World War II and along with Roosevelt planned many allied campaigns. He predicted an iron curtain that would separate Communist Europe from the rest of the West.

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Catherine the Great

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Empress of Russia who greatly increased the territory of the empire (1729-1796);, This was the empress of Russia who continued Peter's goal to Westernizing Russia, created a new law code, and greatly expanded Russia

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Brahe

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Tycho Brahe agreed with Copernicus's theory about the universe. Born from a leading Danish family, Brahe established himself as Europe's leading astronomer. Brahe built the most sophisticated observatory of his day. For 20 years, Brahe meticulously observed stars and planets with the naked eye.

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Kepler

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This astronomer stated that the orbits of planets around the sun were elliptical, the planets do not orbit at a constant speed, and that an orbit is related to its distance from the sun

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Harvey

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English physician and scientist who described the circulation of the blood

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Pascal

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French mathematician and philosopher and Jansenist

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Newton

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English mathematician and physicist, remembered for developing the calculus and for his law of gravitation and his three laws of motion (1642-1727)

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Thomas Hobbes

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English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings (1588-1679), believed that people are born selfish and need a strong central authority

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John Locke

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English empiricist philosopher who believed that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience (1632-1704), advocated the idea of a "social contract" in which government powers are derived from the consent of the governed and in which the government serves the people; also said people have natural rights to life, liberty and property. Tabula Rassa= blank state philosophy

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Francis Bacon

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Father of Empiricism, , English politician and writer, advocated that new knowledge was acquired through an inductive reasoning process (using specific examples to prove or draw conclusion from a general point) called empiricism; rejected Medieval view of knowledge based on tradition, believed it's necessary to collect data, observe, and draw conclusions. This was the foundation of the scientific method

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Descartes

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(1596-1650) French philosopher, discovered analytical geometry. Saw Algebra and Geometry have a direct relationship. Reduced everything to spiritual or physical. , "I think, therefore I am."

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Montesquieu

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French political philosopher who advocated the separation of executive and legislative and judicial powers (1689-1755). wrote Spirit of the Laws

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Voltaire

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French, perhaps greatest Enlightenment thinker. Deist. Mixed glorification and reason with an appeal for better individuals and institutions. Wrote Candide. Believed enlightened despot best form of government.

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Rousseau

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French philosopher from 1712-1778 who believed that people are naturally good, but are corrupted by society

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Loius XVI

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king of France- executed during the french revolution (1789-1799)

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Marie Antoinette

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queen of France (as wife of Louis XVI) who was unpopular her extravagance and opposition to reform contributed to the overthrow of the monarchy; she was guillotined along with her husband (1755-1793)

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Robespierre

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A French political leader of the eighteenth century. A Jacobin, he was one of the most radical leaders of the French Revolution. He was in charge of the government during the Reign of Terror, when thousands of persons were executed without trial. After a public reaction against his extreme policies, he was executed without trial.

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Wordsworth/Coleridge/Byron/Shelley/Keats

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English and romantic poets

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Thomas Malthus

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an English economist who argued that increases in population would outgrow increases in the means of subsistence (1766-1834)

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David Ricardo

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"Iron Law of Wages"-wealthy English stockbroker and leading economist-coldly spelled out the pessimistic implications of Malthus's thought-his iron law of wages stated that because of the pressure of pop. growth, wages would always sin to subsistence level. With more food came more children, neverending cycle.

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Garibaldi

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Italian patriot whose conquest of Sicily and Naples led to the formation of the Italian state (1807-1882). Leader of the Red Shirts

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Mazzini

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Italian nationalist whose writings spurred the movement for a unified and independent Italy (1805-1872); the first person that tried to unify all of Italy. He preached a centralized democratic republic based on universal male suffrage and the will of the people. His brand of democratic republicanism seemed too radical for the people. Austria smashed his republicanism in 1848.,

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Cavour

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Architect of Italian unification in 1858; formed an alliance with France to attack Austrian control of northern Italy; resulted in creation of constitutional monarchy under Piedmonteste king.

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Alexander II

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the son of Nicholas I who, as czar of Russia, introduced reforms that included limited emancipation of the serfs (1818-1881)

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Captain Dreyfuss

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a jewish army officer was found guilty of treason. was deported to devil's island. he was not guilty and in 1899 he was pardoned and in 1906 he was fully exonerated. Emile Zola said "j'accuse" to the public

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Simone de Beauvoir

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French feminist and existentialist and novelist (1908-1986

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Alexandra Kollontai

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Russian revolutionary and diplomat, commissar for social welfare in 1918 and head of the women's section of the Communist Party

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Albert Einstein

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physicist born in Germany who formulated the special theory of relativity and the general theory of relativity, This 20th Century scientist revolutionized the way scientists thought about space, time and matter, the most notable being his theory of relativity.

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Herbert Spencer

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English philosopher and sociologist who applied the theory of natural selection to human societies (1820-1903)- social darwinism

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Archduke Francis Ferdinand

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heir to the throne of Austria Hungary; assassinated by Gavrilo Princip, a bosnian serb. (sarejevo ); sparked WWI

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Tsar Nicholas II; Christine de Pisan; Benjamin Disraeli; William Gladstone

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LOOK THEM UP! NO DEFINITIONS PROVIDED

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Kaiser Wilhelm (william)

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Also known as Wilhelm II; he was the first king or kaiser of unified Germany

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Olympe de Gouges

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A proponent of democracy, she demanded the same rights for French women that French men were demanding for themselves. In her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791), she challenged the practice of male authority and the notion of male-female inequality. She lost her life to the guillotine

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Emmiline Pankhurst

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Leader of the WSPU (Women's Social and Political Union), which fought for women's sufferage in Britain. British, radical, get women to vote!, Women's Social and Political Union, her followers were called suffragettes

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