Ch. 9: B. F. Skinner – Flashcards
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What was Skinner's view of personality & theory?
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Denied b/ concept of personality & use of theories as research tools Consciousness, unconscious, anxiety, & idea of self not considered
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What is a biographical sketch of Skinner's life?
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Born in Pennsylvaia in 1904 Grew up in home w/ strict family rules but little physical punishment - may account of negative view of punishment Active in church as youth but later abandoned religious convictions Enjoyed building things (Skinner box, air crib) Went to small liberal arts college in NY; felt out of place, a rebel; Graduated Phi Beta Kappa Never took psych course Unsuccessful writer Enrolled in Harvard and received PhD
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What is radical behaviorism?
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Version of behaviorism proposed by Watson Only directly observable events (i.e., stimuli & responses) should constitute subject matter of psychology Reference to all internal events can/should be avoided Skinner agreed W/ exception of few basic inherited emotions, behavior patterns are acquired through experience Control experience = create any person Nothing diff. b/w humans & animals One set of learning principles exist for all living organisms
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What is functional analysis?
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Skinner's approach to research Attempted to relate measurable environmental events to measurable behavior & bypass cognitive & physiological processes altogether Personality = only overt behavior emitted reliably in presence of quantifiable stimuli -What ppl do under specific conditions "empty organism"
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What is respondent conditioning? Respondent behavior?
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AKA *Type S conditioning* Term Skinner used to describe classical/Pavlovian conditioning to emphasize importance of the stimulus (S) to such conditioning *Respondent behavior*: behavior elicited by known stimulus Ex: All conditioned & unconditioned responses A direct link exists w/ its occurrence & the stimulus that preceded it *Direct stimulus-response association occurs* Ex: all reflexes (pupil constriction/dilation)
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What are the ingredients of Pavlovian/Classical conditioning?
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS): at beginning of training, S that doesn't elicit predictable response from organism Unconditioned Stimulus (US): elicits automatic, natural, & predictable response Unconditioned Response (UR): natural & automatic response elicited by US
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What is classical conditioning? What is a conditioned response?
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Type of conditioning by Ivan Pavlov, used by Watson as model for behaviorism Conditioned Response: response similar to UR that's elicited by previously neutral stimulus (CS) - If CS paired several times w/ US [Original pairing] CS -> US -> US [Demo of CR] CS -> CR
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What is operant behavior?
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Behavior that can't be linked to any known stimulus; Appears to be emitted rather than elicited Caused by stimulation, but stimulation isn't known, so behavior appears to be emitted Origins of behavior not imp. Most imp. characteristic of operant behavior is that its under control of its consequences It's what happens after operant behavior is emitted that determines its fate Changes in environment will determine subsequent frequency that response is made
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What is type R conditioning?
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AKA *Operant conditioning* Term Skinner used to describe conditioning of operant/emitted behavior to emphasize imp. of response (R) to such conditioning
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What is operant conditioning?
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Modification of response strength by manipulation of consequences of response Responses followed by reinforcer gain in strength Not followed by reinforcer become weaker "If occurrence of an operant is followed by presentation of reinforcing S the strength is increased" If you want to strengthen a certain response/behavior pattern, reward it
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What two elements are necessary to modify behavior?
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Behavior & a reinforcer
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What is the Skinner box?
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Chamber w/ lever, light, food cup, & grid floor When lever pressed, feeder mechanism activated that delivers pellet of food into food cup Operant response of interest: lever-press response Reinforcer: food pellet Event before reinforcer introduced, animal will prob. press lever randomly Situation arranged so when lever-press response made, it's reinforced, & when reinforced, it's strengthened so frequency increases
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What is the operant level?
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Frequency w/ which an operant R is made before it is systematically reinforced
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What is the rate of responding?
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Used to demonstrate operant conditioning If response is followed by reinforcer, rate/frequency it's made will increase If response isn't followed by reinforcer, rate/frequency will stay same or decrease (relative to operant lvl) Acquisition
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What is shaping? What are the two components of the shaping process?
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Gradual development of a R that an organism doesn't normally make Two components: Differential reinforcement Successive approximations
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What is differential reinforcement? Successive approximations?
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*Differential reinforcement*: Situation where some Rs are reinforced & others aren't *Successive approximations*: Situation where only Rs that are increasingly similar to the one ultimately desired are reinforced
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According to operant theory, what is the best way to teach a complex skill?
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Divide it into its basic components & gradually shape it into existence one small step at a time Shaping process extremely imp. to education & childrearing
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What is extinction?
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Weakening of operant response by removing reinforcer that had been following the R during acquisition When response returns to operant lvl = extinguished When reinforcer no longer follows R, frequency that R is made returns to lvl before R was intro into situation Counterpart of acquisition
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What is Skinner's explanation of personality? Behavior modification?
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Rewarded behavior persists, & nonrewarded behavior extinguishes Ex: infant emits sounds; random babbling shaped to language Behavior modification: Reinforce desired behavior & ignore undesirable behavior Extinction is proper method of dealing w/ undesirable behavior, not punishment
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What is a discriminative operant?
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Operant R made under one set of circumstances but not under others Ex: lever-press R reinforced when light on but not off = rate lever is pressed much higher when light is on rather than off
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What is a discriminative stimulus (Sd)?
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Cue indicating that if a certain R is made it will be followed by reinforcement Sd -> R -> Sr (reinforcer)
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What is a principle of operant condition in reference to repetition?
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Any R that's consistently reinforced in particular situation will be repeated when that situation recurs
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What is stimulus generalization?
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Tendency to emit operant R in situations other than those the Rs were learned As the similarity b/w original reinforcing situation & other situations increases, so does probability of responding to them in similar manner Explains why we emit learned responses in situations other than those learning actually occurred
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What is a primary reinforcer? Secondary reinforcer?
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*Primary reinforcer*: Any stimulus that's positively or negatively related to an organism's survival Food, water, oxygen, elimination, & sexual activity Aren't biologically neutral b/c if organism goes long w/o any of them, it won't survive *Secondary reinforcer*: Objects/events that acquire reinforcing properties through association w/ primary reinforcers Originally biologically neutral & not reinforcing Any neutral S that's consistently paired w/ primary reinforcer takes on reinforcing properties of its own
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What are some properties of secondary reinforcers?
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Every Sd that precedes a primary reinforcer, such a food, will become secondary reinforcer ex: light was occasion for lever-press R to be reinforced by food, light became secondary reinforcer Once S takes on reinforcing properties, can be used to condition new R or it can be used to maintain R for which it was the Occassion ex: light can be used to teach animal R other than lever-press R, such as sticking nose to corner of box;;If light followed lever-press R during extinction, animal would go on Ring far beyond point it would stop if light didn't follow lever-press R
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What are most human behavior governed by?
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Secondary reinforcers Ex: Mothers typically associated w/ satisfaction of child's basic needs, they become secondary reinforcers; eventually sight of mother is enough to temporarily pacify hungry/thirsty child Attention alone is a powerful secondary reinforcer b/c it precedes satisfaction of basic needs Other common secondary reinforcers: kind words, bodily contact, glances, money, medals, awards, gifts, privileges, points
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What are generalized reinforcers?
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Class of secondary reinforcers that have ben paired w/ more than one primary reinforcer Ex: Mother- presence is associated w/ several primary reinforcers Money
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What is chaining?
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Situation in which one response brings the organisms into contact w/ S that (1) reinforce that response and (2) stimulate the next response Can also involve other ppl Ex- one person's response can b/ reinforce another person's response & determine next course of action All stimuli that consistently & immediately precede primary reinforcement will take on 2ndary reinforcing properties - S associated w/ those stimulie will take on reinforcing properties, etc. = Stimuli far removed from primary reinforcement can become 2ndary reinforcers & influence behavior Two functions: (1) Reinforce R that preceded their appearance & (2) act as an Sd for next R 2ndary reinforcers act as Sds that ultimately bring organism into contact w/ primary reinforcer It's the primary reinforcer that holds entire chain of events together
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What are some examples of chaining?
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Conversation b/w two ppl What one person says acts as Sd for R from 2nd person 2nd person's R not only rewards 1st person's R but also acts as Sd for another R Etc. Musician When into musical piece, playing note b/ reinforces preceding R (Sr) & stimulates next one (Sd)
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What is verbal behavior?
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Skinner's term for language Language = verbal behavior that's governed by same principles as any other behavior Reinforced behavior persists Nonreinforced behavior extinguishes
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What are three categories of verbal behavior?
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*Mand*: Verbal R that demands something & is reinforced when what's demanded is obtained -"Pass the salt" reinforced when salt is passed *Tact*: part of verbal behavior that accurately names objects & events in environment -child says "doll" while holding doll, will be reinforced *Echoic behavior*: Accurate repeating of what someone else had said
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What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?
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AKA 100% schedule of reinforcement Schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a desired R each time it occurs Opposite: 0% reinforcement schedule- extinction
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What is a partial reinforcement schedule? What are the four types?
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Schedule of reinforcement that sometimes reinforces a desired R & sometimes doesn't R is maintained on a schedule of reinforcement somewhere b/w 100% & 0% Four types: 1. Fixed interval reinforcement schedule (FI) 2. Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule (FR) 3. Variable interval reinforcement schedule (VI) 4. Variable ratio reinforcement schedule (VR)
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What are all interval schedules based on? Ratio schedules?
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Intervals based on time -Time contingent Ratio based on number of R -R contingent
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What is a fixed interval reinforcement schedule (FI)?
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Reinforcement schedule that reinforces a R that's made only after a specified interval of time has passed After organism has been on schedule for while, behavior quickens toward end of time interval then slows down drastically after reinforcement has been obtained ex: fixed weekly/monthly salary; students writing term paper wait until deadlines before writing then cram Only one R needed to obtain reinforcement if R is made at just right time
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What is a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule (FR)?
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Reinforcement schedule that reinforces every nth R ex:Every 5th R organism makes is reinforced Produces extremely high rates of responding Characterizes ppl doing piecework or working for commission The harder one works, the more pay received b/c reinforcement is response-contingent, not time
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What is a variable interval reinforcement schedule (VI)?
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Reinforcement schedule where certain average time interval must pass before a R will be reinforced Ex: organism reinforced on ave. every 30 seconds Bosses who believe workers should be periodically rewarded place them on this schedule At various times, boss reinforces them w/ kind word, although did nothing extra to deserve kind word
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What is a variable ratio reinforcement schedule (VR)?
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Reinforcement schedule where certain average number of responses need to be made before reinforcement is obtained Ex: reinforced on ave. every fifth response Could be close together or far apart The faster the organism R, the more reinforcement it'll obtain Produces highest rate of responding Gambling behavior & salesperson
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What are two important effects does partial reinforcement have on behavior?
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1. Influence rate of responding VR has highest rate of responding, then FR, VI, FI 2. Increase resistance to extinction Partial reinforcement effect
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What is the partial reinforcement effect (PRE)?
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Fact that partially or intermittently reinforced response will take longer to extinguish than R on continuous or 100% schedule of reinforcement R followed by reinforcement only some of time will persist much longer when reinforcement is discontinued than will a R followed by reinforcement ea. time it occurs
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What is contingent reinforcement? What is noncontingent reinforcement?
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*Contingent reinforcement*: Situation where certain R must be made before a reinforcer is obtained; no R- no reinforcer *Noncontingent reinforcement*: Situation where no relationship exists b/w an organism's behavior & the availability of reinforcement
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What is superstitious behavior?
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Behavior that develops under noncontingent reinforcement Organism believes that a relationship exists b/w its actions & reinforcement when in fact no such relationship exists
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What is a positive reinforcement? Negative reinforcement?
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*Positive reinforcement*: occurs when R makes available a primary or secondary positive reinforcer Presents organism w/ something it "wants" *Negative reinforcement*: occurs when R removes primary or secondary negative reinforcer Removes something organism doesn't want
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What is a primary positive reinforcer? Secondary positive reinforcer?
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*Primary positive reinforcement*: positive reinforcement that enhances organism's survival Food, water *Secondary positive reinforcement*: positive reinforcer that derives its reinforcing properties through its association w/ primary positive reinforcer Biologically neutral S paired w/ primary positive reinforcer As w/ primary reinforcement, if secondary positive reinforcement follows R, rate w/ which R is made will increase
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What is a primary negative reinforcer? Secondary negative reinforcer?
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*Primary negative reinforcer*: Negative reinforcer that threatens an organism's survival Pain, oxygen deprivation *Secondary negative reinforcer*: Negative reinforcer that derives reinforcing properties through association w/ primary negative reinforcer B/ involve escaping form aversive situation
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What is escape contingency?
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Situation where organism must respond in certain way to escape from aversive stimulus All negative reinforcement involves escape contingencies
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What is the similarity between positive and negative reinforcement?
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B/ result in increase in R probability or rate of responding B/ result in something desirable Positive reinforcement - R produces something desirable Negative reinforcement - R removes something undesirable
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What is avoidance contingency?
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Situation where organism can avoid aversive stimulus by engaging in appropriate activity Engaging in certain behavior prevents aversive event from occurring ex: open umbrella prevents getting wet Organism's behavior prevents it from experiencing a negative reinforcer
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What is punishment? What is "time out from reinforcement"?
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Either removing positive reinforcer or presenting negative reinforcer Either takes away something org. wants or gives it something it doesn't want "Time out from reinforcement": form of punishment where org. denied access to positive reinforcers that are normally available in sit. for specified interval of time
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What is Skinner's emphasized plan of punishment?
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Behavior should be controlled using positive contingencies Positive reinforcement & punishment aren't opposite in consequences Although positive reinforcement strengthens behavior, punishment doesn't necessarily weaken it Punishment to control behavior have shortcomings: Punished becomes fearful, indicates what one shouldn't do rather than what they should do; justifies inflicting pain; causes aggression; replaces one undesirable R w/ another Stressed positively reinforcing desirable behavior & ignoring undesirable behavior (extinction)
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What is contingency contracting?
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Agreement b/w two ppl that when one acts in appropriate way, the other gives him/her something of value Rearranged reinforcement contingencies in environment so that they now encourage desirable behavior & discourage undesirable behavior Behavior is under control of more immediate reinforcers instead of distant ones Ex: stop smoking- gives fried $100, get $10 back every week don't smoke, lose $10 when do smoke
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What is Skinner's view of behavior disorders?
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Inappropriate behavior learned in same way as appropriate behavior B/ desirable & undesirable behavior are under control of their consequences Abnormal behavior is caused by external, observable events, not inner causation Inappropriate behavior persists b/c it's maintained by reinforcement If you want to eliminate undesirable behavior, must prevent reinforcement Should specify behavior you want instead and reinforce it when it occurs
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What is the Skinnerian version of behavior therapy?
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Behavior therapy- any approach to psychotherapy based on learning theory Clearly specifying undesirable behaviors that are to be extinguished Clearly specify desirable behaviors to be reinforced Arranging reinforcement contingencies so they're responsive to desirable behavior but not undesirable ones Ex: contingency contracting, token economy alcoholism, drug addiction, mental retardation, autism, etc.
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What are token economies?
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Ex. of Skinnerian behavior therapy that usually occurs w/in institutional settings (psych hospitals or school) Desirable behavior is reinforced by tokens (points, cards) that can subsequently be traded for desirable objects (food, cigarettes, privacy, etc.) Are secondary reinforcers b/c are exchanged Generalized reinforcers- paired w/ several primary reinforcers
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What are some criticisms & shortcomings of token economies?
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Treats only symptoms, not causes of them The real problem, psychosis itself, remains intact Unethical to deprive patients of goods & services they're entitled to, then provide items selectively when they act in appropriate ways Effects of programs often don't generalize to extra treatment conditions Real world reinforcement not nearly as predictable Simply don't work sometimes
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What is contingency management?
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Purposive manipulation of reinforcement contingencies so they encourage desirable behaviors Can be applied to treatment of behavior disorders Can design a culture
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What is culture, according to Skinner? What is cultural engineering?
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*Culture*: Set of reinforcement contingencies That encourages certain behaviors and discourages others *Cultural engineering*: Use of contingency management in designing a culture Walden Two
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What is Skinner's view on the development of a technology of behavior?
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Main barrier is the traditional view of human nature - people as autonomous Free to do as they choose- worthy of praise & dignity when they accomplish something If those same accomplishments could be ascribed to outside influences, they would lose their meaning Trouble w/ notion of autonomous ppl is that it explains nothing about human behavior Auto ppl- causes of behavior are mystical As our knowledge abt human behavior increases, more of what once was attributed to auto ppl has been attributed to environment As we learn more, tread will continue
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What are some empirical research of Skinner's theory?
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No problem w/ empirical validation So many researchers follow Skinnerian principles Formed own division of APA W/ exception of Cattell's & Eysenk's, not personality theory considered thus far is so intimately tied to experimental research
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What are some criticisms of Skinner's theory?
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Excessive generalization from nonhuman animals to humans Radial environmentalism - determinism Assumed behavior is caused by reinforcement contingencies found in environment Reduces humans to mindless automatons Who control the controllers? Operant principles can/should be applied in cultural engineering; believed entire society could be arranged like token economy Members should soon act as dispensers of the reinforcers what them to act Who decides what behavior is desirable?
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What are some contributions of Skinner's theory?
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Applied value- education, childrearing, therapy, personal improvement Scientifically rigorous explanation of human behavior All elements in theory grew out of lab
