APUSH Period 1: 1491-1607 – Flashcards

On a North American continent controlled by American Indians, contact among the peoples of Europe, the Americas, and West Africa created a new world.

Before the arrival of Europeans, native populations in North America developed a wide variety of social, political, and economic structures based in part on interactions with the environment and each other.

As settlers migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America, they developed quite different and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments.

European overseas expansion resulted in the Columbian Exchange, a series of interactions and adaptations among societies across the Atlantic.

The arrival of Europeans in the Western Hemisphere in the 15th and 16th centuries triggered extensive demographic and social changes on both sides of the Atlantic.

European expansion into the Western Hemisphere caused intense social/religious, political, and economic competition in Europe and the promotion of empire building.

Contacts among American Indians, Africans, and Europeans challenged the worldviews of each group.

European overseas expansion and sustained contacts with Africans and American Indians dramatically altered European views of social, political, and economic relationships among and between white and nonwhite peoples.

Native peoples and Africans in the Americas strove to maintain their political and cultural autonomy in the face of European challenges to their independence and core beliefs.

The spread of maize (corn) cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the American Southwest and beyond supported economic development and social diversification among societies in these areas; a mix of foraging and hunting did the same for societies in the Northwest and areas of California.

Corn planting reached the present-day American Southwest by about 1200 B.C.; In the Rio Grande valley, they constructed intricate irrigation systems to water their cornfields. They were dwelling in villages of multistoried, terraced buildings when Spanish explorers made contact with them in the 16th century.

lived in the Northwest along the banks of the Columbia River and the coast of the Pacific Ocean; were canoe builders and navigators, masterful traders, skillful fishermen and planters. They lived in large wooden plank houses and slept on reed mats over raised boards.

In the dry region that now includes New Mexico and Arizona, groups evolved multifaceted societies supported by farming with irrigation systems. In large numbers they lived in caves, under cliffs, and in multistoried buildings. By the time Europeans arrived, extreme drought and other hostile natives had taken their toll on these groups. However, much of their way of life was preserved in their arid land and their stone and masonry dwellings.

lived in the desert in present-day Arizona from about A.D. 300 to A.D. 1300. They dug hundreds of miles of irrigation channels to bring water from the rivers to their fields. Artifacts such as pottery, carved stone, and shells have been found from this civilization. The shells are proof that they traded with people from the coast.

(from a Navajo Indian word meaning "the ancient ones") lived in the southwest at the point where the present-day states of Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado meet. They built villages, or pueblos, with stone or adobe houses. They also built homes in the sides of steep cliffs, called cliff dwellings. Both pueblos and cliff dwellings were villages that looked somewhat like apartment buildings. Cliff dwellings were easy to look after and were protected from the weather. Drought, or long periods of little rainfall, may have caused crops to die and forced them to move. In about 1300 they began to settle in smaller communities.

(Spanish for "town") refers to the village-dwelling Indians of the southwestern United States, including the Hopi of northeastern Arizona, the Zuni of western New Mexico, and the Rio Grande Pueblos.

Along the Pacific coast from what is today Alaska to northern California, people lived in permanent longhouses or plank houses. They had a rich diet based on hunting, fishing, and gathering nuts, berries, and roots. To save stories, legends, and myths, they carved large totem poles. The high mountain ranges in this region isolated tribes from one another creating barriers to development.

East of the Mississippi River, the Woodland American Indians, prospered with a rich food supply, Supported by hunting, fishing, and agriculture, many permanent settlements developed in the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys and elsewhere.

lived in southern Ohio and neighboring regions of West Virginia, Kentucky, and Indiana during the Early Woodland Period (around 800 B.C.). They were the first people in this region to settle down in small villages, cultivate crops, use pottery vessels, acquire exotic raw materials, such as copper and marine shell, to make ornaments and jewelry, and bury their honored dead in conical burial mounds. Their culture developed out of the earlier Adena culture around 100 C.E. It was based in the Ohio Valley, but its trade and influence extended as far as Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, New York and Ontario, and south to Florida. Their economy was based on hunting and gathering and was supplemented by agriculture.

the largest settlement of Mound Builders in present-day Illinois, was built after A.D. 900 by the Mississippians. Like the civilizations of Mexico, they had one tall mound, Monks Mound, with a temple at the top. The cities were religious with priests or priest-rulers. The Mississippians may have lived near Mexico at one time, which would explain the similarities between the two cultures.

Native societies responded to the lack of natural resources in the Great Basin and the western Great Plains by developing largely mobile lifestyles.

homelands were in what is now Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North and South Dakota. were nomadic, following the buffalo herds for food. They did not grow crops, but gathered various edible roots, berries and other vegetation to supplement their diets. In addition to buffalo the Lakota also hunted deer, elk and antelope.

natives of the Southwest deserts (particularly in Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas). They were nomadic hunters and gatherers. They adopted the horse, transforming their culture into highly mobile, wide- ranging hunter societies that roamed the Great Plains in pursuit of the buffalo.

In the Northeast and along the Atlantic Seaboard some societies developed a mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economy that favored the development of permanent villages.

a political union of 5 independent tribes who lived in the Mohawk Valley of New York. They hunted and fished, gathered nuts, berries, and other wild foods when these resources were available, and they cultivated productive crops, particularly corn, beans, and squash.

By about 3,000 years ago, the Algonquians had settled throughout the state of New York. The Algonquian tradition was that men hunted, trapped, fished, and fought in wars. Women cared for children, built wigwams, prepared food, and made clothing. The Algonquians moved frequently to hunt. They used animal fur and hides to make clothing and shaped bones into tools. They built canoes to travel long distances and to trade.

Spanish and Portuguese exploration and conquest of the Americas led to widespread deadly epidemics, the emergence of racially mixed populations, and a caste system defined by an intermixture among Spanish settlers, Africans, and Native Americans.

Smallpox is believed to have arrived in the Americas in 1520 on a Spanish ship sailing from Cuba, carried by an infected African slave. As soon as the party landed in Mexico, the infection began its deadly voyage through the continent. It killed an estimated 90% of Native Americans.

born to Spanish and Native American parents

children of Africans and Amerindians (Native Americans) emerged from Mexico southward throughout much of South America.

Spanish and Portuguese traders reached West Africa and partnered with some African groups to exploit local resources and recruit slave labor for the Americas.

took place in the European diet, fueled by the forced migration of millions of Africans to work the canefields and sugar mills of the New World.

The introduction of new crops and livestock (e.g. horses and cows) by the Spanish had far-reaching effects on native settlement patterns, as well as on economic, social, and political development in the Western Hemisphere.

Products introduced to Europe from the Americas included corn, tomatoes, potatoes, peanuts, tobacco, and cotton, while people from the Old World brought wheat, rice, sugarcane, horses, cattle, pigs, and sheep to the New. But Europeans also carried germs previously unknown in the Americas.

In the economies of the Spanish colonies, Indian labor, used in the encomienda system to support plantation-based agriculture and extract precious metals (e.g., silver), and other resources (e.g., sugar), was gradually replaced by African slavery.

Ambitious conquistadores, interested chiefly in their own wealth and glory, had to be brought under royal authority. The monarch rewarded the leaders of the conquest with Indian villages. The people who lived in the settlements provided the encomenderos with labor tribute in exchange for legal protection and religious guidance. Cortés alone was granted the services of more than 23,000 Indian workers. The encomienda system made the colonizers more dependent on the king, for it was he who legitimized their title.

African slaves were carried to the Americas and a tax was paid to the Spanish crown for each slave imported.

Columbus also brought seedlings of sugar cane, which thrived in the warm Caribbean climate. It took place in the European diet, fueled by the forced migration of millions of Africans to work the canefields and sugar mills of the New World.

European exploration and conquest were fueled by a desire for new sources of wealth, increased power and status, and converts to Christianity.

believed that he could reach Asia by sailing west instead of east around Africa. He asked Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to sponsor his voyage to the West Indies. He set out from Spain on August 3, 1492, with about 90 sailors on a fleet of 3 ships: the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María. He reached an island Columbus named San Salvador in what is now the Bahamas on October 12, 1492. In 1493, 1498, and 1502, Columbus explored the Caribbean islands of Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Cuba, and Jamaica. They gathered groups of Arawak and Taíno (Native Americans) and sent them to Europe as slaves.

it gave Portugal control over its route around Africa, and it gave Spain rights to almost all of the Americas (Portugal controlled present-day Brazil). An imaginary line that divided their spheres of influence.

In 1513 he was the first Spaniard to land on the mainland of North America. He landed on the east coast of present-day Florida and established the first Spanish settlement at St. Augustine. Ponce de León searched for, but never found, the fountain of youth he had heard stories about. It was believed that if a person drank from the fountain of youth, that person would remain young forever.

is the nation's oldest permanently occupied European settlement, having been founded by the Spanish in 1565. On September 8, 1565, Don Pedro Menéndez de Aviles came ashore and named a stretch of land near the inlet in honor of Augustine, a saint of the Roman Catholic Church on whose feast day - August 28 - land was sighted.

was determined to achieve his brother's goals. He petitioned the Queen to take up Gilbert's cause. The Queen gave Raleigh permission to explore the coast of North America and make settlement in her name. In 1584 Raleigh outfitted a military expedition but did not sail with the crew. This expedition sailed first to Florida and then headed north, landing on the North Carolina coast. Raleigh quickly sent another expedition, this time with the intent of establishing a settlement. In 1585 Sir Richard Grenville landed on the North Carolina coast with 108 settlers. Grenville quickly angered the American Indians and even killed a chief in a dispute over a drinking cup. When Grenville returned to England for supplies, the settlers found themselves in a hostile land with little food and less hope for survival. Fortunately, another English explorer, Sir Francis Drake, sailed by their camp. The settlers decided to leave the North Carolina coast behind and travel with Drake back home to England. Raleigh was undaunted at the failure of the first settlement. In 1587 Raleigh sent a third expedition to North America, this one with families instead of soldiers. The 150 settlers, led by John White, established a community on Roanoke Island. It was too late to plant crops for the season, and relations with the Indians turned from bad to worse. White soon returned to England for supplies so that they wouldn't starve to death. However, White arrived in England to find his country at war with Spain. Constant sea battles closed the Atlantic to nonmilitary vessels and prevented his return to the coast of North Carolina until 1590. He found that the settlers he had left behind on Roanoke Island had completely disappeared. This community would later become known as the "Lost Colony."

English settlers first came to Roanoke Island in 1585. Their colony failed, however. They fought with American Indians and they didn't bring enough supplies. England sent another group two years later. They also settled on Roanoke Island. John White was their leader. After they landed in 1587, his daughter gave birth to a baby girl. This was the first European child to be born in North America. John White sailed back to England for more supplies. But he couldn't return to Roanoke until 1590. When he got there, everyone was gone. No one knows what happened to the settlers. Roanoke became known as "the Lost Colony." Though the first two colonies on Roanoke Island failed, British leaders learned many lessons. English leaders realized their colonies required more supplies. They also needed to choose a better location with a good port. It should be a place where settlers could grow their own food. This way they could trade with American Indians instead of competing with them.

In 1499 he mapped out South America's coastline. He concluded that South America was a continent and not part of Asia. European geographers called the continent America, in honor of Amerigo Vespucci.

an older brother of Walter Raleigh. In 1578, Sir Humphrey Gilbert got a Royal Charter ("Patent") from Queen Elizabeth I to search for a NW passage to the Far East and claim lands for England in North America. In 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed Newfoundland for England. He made landfall in Nova Scotia and sailed down the coast, searching for possible settlement locations. His expedition met constant storms and hostile American Indians. Because of these problems, Gilbert was forced to head back to England. On the way, his ship sunk and he drowned.

New crops (e.g., corn and potatoes) from the Americas stimulated European population growth, while new sources of mineral wealth facilitated the European shift from feudalism to capitalism.

Improvements in technology and more organized methods for conducting international trade helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas.

navigational instrument that is used to determine latitude for navigation. It does this by measuring angular distances, like the altitude of the sun, moon and stars. It replaced the astrolabe. The word sextant comes from the Latin word meaning "one sixth."

Originally invented in China, by the 14th century compasses had widely replaced astronomical means as the primary navigational instrument for mariners.

small, fast type of sailing ship used by Spanish and Portuguese explorers. This vessel sat high in the water and had square and triangular sails. The triangle-shaped sails allowed it to sail against the wind. The caravel was ideally suited for coastal exploration and ocean travel during the 15th and 16th centuries.

was used to determine the latitude of a ship at sea by measuring the noon altitude of the Sun or the meridian altitude of a star of known declination.

invented in China in the 10th-century and spread to Europe and Southwest Asia in the 14th century. Between 1500 and 1650, the world experienced a dramatic increase in the manufacture of weapons based on gunpowder. Firearms were a crucial element in the creation of new empires after 1500.

group of entrepreneurs that invested in a business by buying a share of the company. These shares are called stocks.

With little experience dealing with people who were different from themselves, Spanish and Portuguese explorers poorly understood the native peoples they encountered in the Americas, leading to debates over how American Indians should be treated and how "civilized" these groups were compared to European standards.

Spanish incorporated them as laborers. Because few families came from Spain to settle the empire, the explorers and soldiers intermarried with natives as well as with Africans.

ended Indian slavery, halted forced Indian labor, and began to end the encomienda system which kept the Indians in serfdom.

Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan de Sepúlveda argued over the role for Indians in the Spanish colonies. The debate occurred from 1550-1551 in Valladolid, Spain.

a Spanish humanist, argued that Indians were less than human. Hence, they benefited from serving the Spaniards in the encomienda system.

Spanish Dominican friar, condemned early Spanish cruelty and murder of American Indians in his History of the Indies (1550)

unlike the Spanish, the English settled in areas without large native empire that could be controlled as a workforce. Many English colonists came in families rather than as single young men, so marriage with natives were less common.

Looking for furs and converts to Catholicism, viewed American Indians as potential economic and military allies. Compared to the Spaniards and English, the French maintained good relations with the tribes they encountered. Along the fur posts that were established, the exchanged French goods for beaver pelts and other furs collected by American Indians.

Many Europeans developed a belief in white superiority to justify their subjugation of Africans and American Indians, using several different rationales.

European attempts to change American Indian beliefs and worldviews on basic social issues such as religion, gender roles and the family, and the relationship of people with the natural environment led to American Indian resistance and conflict.

The Spanish sought to forcibly Christianize Amerindians. Franciscans founded the mission system in New Mexico in the 17th century (later in California and Texas in the 17th and 18th centuries). They forbade practice of Amerindian religion; practices driven underground. Missions were religious communities, usually small towns with a small church that was surrounded by farmland.

The Spanish settlers who came to North America had two aims. They wanted to claim land and to convert the Native Americans to Catholicism. To achieve these goals, the Spaniards set up fortified religious settlements known as missions. Born in 1713 on an island off the Spanish Coast, Junípero Serra became a Franciscan priest. Because he wanted to work as a missionary among Native Americans, he left Spain in 1749 to travel to Mexico. At the age of 55, he was sent to take control of Upper California. He established a mission in San Diego in 1769 and later founded eight other missions. By 1820 there were 21 missions stretching up the California coast to San Francisco. Taking as his motto "Always to go forward and never to turn back," Junípero Serra traveled by foot from mission to mission. Despite his crippled leg, Father Serra visited each of his missions regularly. Father Serra's missions usually were built a day's march from each other. Travelers always had a place to rest after a long day's journey. This also made it easier to trade and sell their food and crafts. The missionaries also built the missions near the coast so that ships could get fresh supplies before heading out to sea. Each mission was unique in a few ways, but they all had the same basic plan: a large, four-sided building with a central courtyard. The mission was a bustling world of workshops, storage areas, gardens, and living quarters. Father Serra believed that the Native Americans should "have their own lands and crops so that poverty will not make them [leave the mission]." The location of the mission was often determined by the availability of wood, water, and fields for raising crops and grazing the livestock that the Spanish brought to the Americas.

established New Mexico, 1598. Spanish authorities instructed him to be less harsh with the Amerindians than Cortés and Pizarro had earlier been but cruelty persisted nonetheless. In July 1598, Oñate demanded Pueblo chiefs swear allegiance to Spain and convert to Catholicism though not all agreed. Oñate retaliated against Pueblo Indians at Acoma by killing 1000 and enslaving 500 others (The captured males over twenty-five years of age were sold into slavery; to prevent them from running away, one of each of their feet was chopped off). Oñate was removed from power in 1609.

In spite of slavery, Africans' cultural and linguistic adaptations to the Western Hemisphere resulted in varying degrees of cultural preservation and autonomy.

societies that were formed by slaves who fled from farms and plantations. These runaway communities provided a sanctuary for thousands of slaves. They could be found deep in the woods, in the mountains, and in the swamps throughout the southern part of the United States. Some slaves lived in these communities for weeks, months, and even years. Slaves used Maroon societies as a launching pad to take livestock, chickens, and vegetables from neighboring farms and plantations. The Great Dismal Swamp—known as the site of the largest Maroon society in North America—was located in southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina.

Enslaved Africans transported to the New World beginning in the fifteenth century brought with them a wide range of local religious beliefs and practices. This diversity reflected the many cultures and linguistic groups from which they had come. The majority came from the West Coast of Africa, but even within this area religious traditions varied greatly. Islam had also exerted a powerful presence in Africa for several centuries before the start of the slave trade: an estimated twenty percent of enslaved people were practicing Muslims, and some retained elements of their practices and beliefs well into the nineteenth century. Catholicism had even established a presence in areas of Africa by the sixteenth century.