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sociology

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scientific study of human social life, groups, and societies

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Auguste Comte

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created the term "sociology", regarded sociology to be last science to be developed but the most complex; using science to understand, predict, and control human behavior

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sociological imagination

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the application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of sociological questions (look at daily routines from a new perspective)

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structuration

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two-way process: 1) we shape our social world through our individual actions 2) in turn, we are reshaped by society

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Asch experiment

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conformity experiment; "vision test" where experimenter asked group of men whether the line they saw was shorter, longer, or the same length.

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Emile Durkheim

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-believed that sociology must focus on social facts to become a science -believed key task of sociologist was to search for correlations among social facts in order to reveal laws of social structure -saw society as a set of independent parts to be studied separately, but had to work in harmony with each other (organic solidarity) -argued that society is more than the sum of individual acts; society exerts social constraint over action of its members -most influential study: analysis of suicide

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organic solidarity

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the social cohesion that results from various parts of a society functioning as an integrated whole

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anomie

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refers to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior (Durkeim's suicide analysis)

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social constraint

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the conditioning influence on our behavior by the groups and societies of which we are members

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social facts

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aspects of social life that shape our actions as individuals

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Karl Marx

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-viewpoint founded on materialist conception of history -believed that we must study the divisions within a society that are derived from economic inequalities of capitalism -society divided by class differences

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Max Werber

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-main dynamic of modern development is the rationalization of social and economic life -focused on why Western societies developed differently from other societies -emphasized importance of cultural ideas and values on social change

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materialist conception of history

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which material/economic factors have a prime role in determining historical change

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Harriet Martineau

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-credited with introducing sociology to England through their translation of Comte's "Positive Philosophy". -argued that when one studies a society, one must focus on all of its aspects (political, religious, social) -believed analysis of society must include and understanding of women's lives -first to turn sociological eye on previously ignored issues (marriage, children, domestic life, religious life, race relations) -argued that sociologists should not only observe, but act in ways to benefit a society

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W.E.B. Du Bois

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-contributed concept of double consciousness -argued that American society lets African Americans see themselves only through eyes of others -made claim that one's sense of self and one's identity are influenced by historical experiences and social circumstances

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double consciousness

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a way of talking about identity through the lens of the experiences of African Americans

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symbolic interactionalism

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theory that emphasizes role of symbols and languages as core elements of all human interaction

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functionalism

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theory based on notion that social events can best be explained in terms of the functions they perform (contributions they make to the continuity of a society)

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Marxism

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theory that is supposed to generate a program of radical political change. lays more emphasis on conflict, class divisions, power, and ideology.

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ideology

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shared ideas or beliefs that serve to justify the interest of dominant groups; serve to legitimize power that groups hold

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feminist theory

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sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world (esp. experiences of women). intention to explain gender inequalities and work to overcome them.

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feminism

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advocacy of the rights of women to be equal with men in all spheres of life

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postmodernism

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belief that society is no longer governed by history or progress; highly pluralistic and diverse, no "grand narrative" guiding its development

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microsociology

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the study of human behavior in contexts of face-to-face interaction

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macrosociology

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the study of large-scale groups, organizations, or social systems (economy, political system, development of industrialization)

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empirical investigation

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factual inquiry carried out in any area of sociological study

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first step in research process

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define the problem (select topic for research)

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second step in research process

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review the evidence (familiarize self with existing research on topic)

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third step in research process

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formulate a hypothesis (what do you intend to test? relationship among variables?)

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fourth step in research process

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select a research design (choose one or more research methods: experiment, survey, observation, use of existing sources)

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fifth step in research process

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carry out the research (collect data, record information)

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sixth step in research process

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interpret the results (work out the implications of the data collected)

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last step in research process

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report the research findings (what is their significant? how do they relate to previous findings?)

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factual question

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(type of research question) asks: what happened?

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comparative question

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(type of research question) asks: did this happen everywhere?

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developmental question

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(type of research question) asks: has this happened over time?

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theoretical question

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(type of research question) asks: what underlies this phenomenon?

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ethnography

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the firsthand study of people using participant observation or interviews

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secondary statistical data

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using someone else's data (e.g. a U.S. census)

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comparative and historical research

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research that compares one set of findings on one society with the same type of findings on other societies (variations in social phenomena across time and space)

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Milgram's obedience experiment

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experiment where experimenter asked participants to electrocute the tester when given an incorrect answer -ethical dilemmas: participants experienced psychological distress, not allowed to leave study immediately

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Zimbardo's prison experiment

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experiment where participants took roles of either guards or prisoners, dangerous tensions between make-believe guards and prisoners -ethical dilemmas: participants abused/abusive, prisoners experienced extreme emotional distress, not allowed to leave study immediately

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Tuskegee experiment

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experiment where participants (targeted black males) were told they were receiving medical attention, when they were being injected with syphilis. lasted 40 years under the supervision of the U.S. Public Health Service. -ethical dilemmas: participants were harmed under the guise of medical care, experienced psychological distress, physical harm, death

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Tearoom Trade experiment

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experiment where researcher studied homosexual encounters in public spaces by playing role as the "watchqueen" in order to observe the encounters -ethical dilemmas: "participants" never agreed to participate, researcher stalked participants, possibly put gay participants in danger by outing them

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culture

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a set of norms, values, behaviors, and material objects that constitute the way of life of a social group

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cultural values

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the ideals and beliefs upon which a society exists

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cultural norms

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the unspoken social rules that refer to attitudes and behaviors that are considered typical within the society

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cultural universals

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values or modes of behavior shared by all human cultures (marriage, art, gift giving, rules of hygiene, use of language)

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cultural variations

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values or modes of behavior that vary both and across and within societies (subcultures, age groups)

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ethnocentric

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viewing one's own culture as normal and, oftentimes, superior

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multiculturalism

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view point according to which ethnic groups can exist separately and share equally in economic and political life; calls for respecting cultural diversity and promoting equality of different cultures

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cultural relativism

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the practice of judging a society by its own standards

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cultural assimilation

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the acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group taken on the values and norms of the dominant culture

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signifier

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any vehicle of meaning and communication (such as sounds made in speech, marks made to create writing, clothing, visual signs, architecture, modes of eating)

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socialization

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a process of social interaction through which people acquire (1) personality and identity, and (2) the way of life of their society

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primary socialization

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the process by which children learn the cultural norms of their society; takes place during infancy and early childhood, occurs largely in the family

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secondary socialization

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the process by which children learn the appropriate behavior as a member of a smaller group within larger society; takes place during later childhood, occurs largely outside of the family (school, sports, peer groups, media, workplace)

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"I"

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the unsocialized infant, spontaneous wants and desires

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"Me"

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the social self, developed self-consciousness (seeing themselves as others see them)

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sensorimeter

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(birth - 2 years): exploring environment; learn mainly by touching objects

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preoperational

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(2 - 7 years): egocentric; children acquire mastery of language, not yet able to use their developing mental capabilities systematically; tendency to interpret world exclusively in terms of their position

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concrete operational

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(7 - 11 years): basic abstraction; children can master logical but not abstract notions

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formal operational

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(11 - 15 years): further abstraction and hypothetical reasoning; when faced with a problem, adolescents are able to review all possible ways of solving it and go through with them theoretically in order to reach a solution

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social identity

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mark ways in which individuals are the same as others (includes gender, race, nationality, sexual orientation)

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self identity

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the ongoing process of self-development and definition of our personal identity; sets us apart as distinct individuals

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gender socialization

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process of learning "appropriate" gendered behavior through agents of socialization; found to begin before birth, parental presence and behavior plays role

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resocialization

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the abandonment of one's own culture in order to learn another

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Erving Goffman

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developed microsociology, outlined the way in which social life was (in its essence) "theater"

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Paul Ekman

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developed the Facial Action Coding System (FACS) - describes movements in the facial muscles that give rise to particular expressions

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non-verbal communication

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includes any exchange of information without speaking (face and gesture, online communication, personal space, presentation of self)

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impression management

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preparing for the presentation of one's social role (by way of dress, personality, speech) in order to control how others perceive them

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unfocused interaction

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interaction occurring among people present in a particular settling but not engaged in direct face-to-face communication (often with nonverbal communication)

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focused interaction

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interaction between individuals engaged in a common activity or in direct conversation with each other

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civil inattention

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the process where individuals in the same physical setting demonstrate to each other that they are aware of each other's presence, but avoid any gesture that may be taken as being intrusive

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ethnomethodological

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the study of "ethnomethods" - how people make sense of what others say and do in the course of day-to-day social interaction; concerned with how people sustain meaningful exchanges with one another

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interactional vandalism

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the deliberate subversion of the tacit rules of conversation (e.g. cat-calling/verbal harassment)

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conversation analysis

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the study of conversations, employing techniques drawn from ethnomethodology; examines details of naturally occurring conversations to reveal

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response cry

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seemingly involuntary exclamations individuals make when being taken by surprise, dropping something, expressing pleasure, etc.

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compulsion of proximity

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people's need to interact with others in their presence (rather than over electronic communication)

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life course

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the various transitions and stages people experience during their lives

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social gerontology

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the study of aging and the elderly

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disengagement theory

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functionalist theory of aging that holds that it is functional for society to remove people from their traditional roles when they become elderly, thereby freeing up those roles for others

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activity theory

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functionalist theory of aging that which holds that busy, engaged people are more likely to lead fulfilling and productive lives

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continuity theory

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functionalist theory of aging that specifies that elderly people fare best when they participate in activities consistent personality, preferences, and activities earlier in life

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social conflict theory

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second generation of theory: emphasizes the ways in which the larger social structure helps to shape the opportunities available to the elderly--unequal opportunities (between young and old) create potential for conflict

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life course perspective

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third generation of theory: perspective based on the assumptions that the aging process is shaped by the historical time and place; the way one grows old depends on on their childhood/young adulthood and societal events/changes that occurred

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groupthink

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process by which the members of a group ignore ways of thinking and plans of action that go against the group consensus

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in-group

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group toward which one feels particular loyalty and respect--group to which "we" belong

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out-group

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group toward which one feels antagonism and contempt

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primary group

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group that is characterized by intense emotional ties, face-to-face interaction, intimacy, a strong sense of commitment

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secondary group

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group that is characterized by its large size and by impersonal, fleeting relationship

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reference group

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a group that provides a standard for judging one's attitudes and behaviors (family, peers, classmates, co-workers)

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Georg Simmel

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studied and theorized about the impact of small groups on people's behavior; believed that as group size increases, intensity decreases while stability and exclusivity increase

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dyad

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a group consisting of two people; Simmel reasoned that they are likely to be simultaneously intense and unstable due to involving intimacy and conflict

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triad

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a group consisting of three persons; Simmel regards these as more stable, relieves pressure within group

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bureaucracy

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a large organization that is divided into jobs based on specific functions and staffed by officials ranked according to a hierarchy (industrial firms, government organizations, hospitals, schools)

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social capital

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the social knowledge and connections that enable people to accomplish their goals and extend their influence

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formal organizations

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means by which a group is rationally designed to achieve its objectives, often using explicit rules, regulations, and procedures

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informal organizations

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means by which a group creates an interlocking social structure that governs how people work in practice

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oligarch

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rule by a small minority within an organization or society

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George Herbert Mead

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ideas formed the basis of symbolic interactionism

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