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Temperament: the building blocks of personality aspects of temperament

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-Activity level -Emotionality (a measure of a person's emotional reactivity to a stimulus) -Self-regulation -Avoiding and approaching new things and people.

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Five-factor theory of personality

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-Come up with different items, questions -Using factor-analysis, look for relationships between different items -Big Five is a widely reliable measure cross-culturally

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Five-factor theory of personality: The big 5

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1. Openness...being curious, original, intellectual, creative, and open to new ideas 2. Conscientiousness...being organized, systematic, punctual, achievement-oriented, and dependable 3. Extraversion...being outgoing, talkative, social, and enjoying social situations 4. Agreeableness...being tolerant, sensitive, trusting, kind, and warm 5. Neuroticism...being anxious, irritable, temperamental, and moody

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For the big 5 theory of personality, men and women generally show no difference in these 2 of the big 5

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Openness and conscientiousness

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Self-Esteem

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feelings of self-worth, self-respect, or self-acceptance

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In regards to self-esteem for girls and boys, until the onset of adolescence...

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results are mixed, but point toward no gender differences (or minor ones in either direction)

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Starting in adolescence onwards, males show...

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consistently higher self-esteem than females...small to moderate effect sizes

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The gap for self-esteem in regards to appearance and athletic ability between men and women is

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larger (compared to just general self-esteem between men and women and adolescents)

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Approaches to gender development

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-Biological approaches -Social approaches -Cognitive approaches

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Biological approaches to gender development include

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-Evolutionary theory -Genetic and hormonal explanations

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Social approaches to gender development include

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-Emphasizing role of experiences in the environment on influencing gender roles

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Cognitive approaches to gender development include

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-Emphasizing cognitive aspects, including knowledge, beliefs, interest, reasoning abilities

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(Biological approach) Evolutionary theory

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-Different reproductive tasks of men and women are associated with different psychological strategies -Adaptive strategies that increase reproductive success will be selected and will increase in frequency

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(Biological approach) Evolutionary theory cont...

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It is adaptive for males to have good spatial skills, be aggressive and confident, and have a high sexual desire. It is adaptive for females to be picky when choosing a partner, and be nurturing and loving to children

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(Biological approach) Criticisms to evolutionary theory

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-Claims are hard to test -Explanations do not account for within-sex differences -Difficult to make inferences about adaptive significance

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(Biological approach) Genetic and Hormonal explanations

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-Proximal biological explanations of behavior -Psychological characteristics are influenced by biological factors (such as hormones, genetics), similar to physical characteristics -Main samples: individuals with unusual genetic and hormonal combinations

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(Biological approach) Criticisms for genetic and hormonal explanations

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-Do not account for all gender differences -Smaller samples, hard to generalize -Hard to study biological factors in isolation

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Which theory/approach would claim this? \"It is adaptive for girls to be nurturing and for boys to have spatial abilities\"

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Evolutionary theory (biological approach)

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Which theory/approach would claim this? \"Toy preferences for girls and boys are hard-wired\"

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Genetic and Hormonal theory/explanation (biological approach)

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Types of social approaches to gender development

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-Psychoanalytic Theory -Learning Theories -Social Role Theory -Ecological Theory -Social Construction Theory

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(Social approach) Psychoanalytic Theory

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-Pioneered by Sigmund Freud -Emphasizes the importance of genitals and knowledge about genitals in gender development -Children recognize possession or lack of a penis, and their social interactions revolve around this realization

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(Social approach) Psychoanalytic theory cont...

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Children \"identify\" with the same-sex parent

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(Social approach) Psychoanalytic theory cont 2...

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Social interactions are dominated by many negative emotions: -Oedipus complex -Castration anxiety -Penis envy -Electra complex

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(Social approach) Psychoanalytic theory: Oedipus Complex

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Boys see their fathers as rivals for their mothers' love

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(Social approach) Psychoanalytic theory: Castration Anxiety

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the fear that a father will castrate his son to end the rivalry makes the son \"identify with the aggressor\"

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(Social approach) Psychoanalytic theory: Penis envy

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girls envy fathers and brothers, and believe they have been castrated -results in feelings of inferiority

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(Social approach) Psychoanalytic theory: Electra complex

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girls seeing their mothers as rivals for fathers' love

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(Social approach) Nancy Chodrow proposed a contemporary psychoanalytic theory that was...

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-Less sexual, less negative, more feminist -Boys and girls identify with the mother as the primary caretaker -Girls identify with femininity easily -Boys define masculine as whatever is not feminine

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(Social approach) Criticisms to Freud's psychoanalytic theory

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-Freud's theory is based on small sample of clinical cases -Too much emphasis on sexuality and the early years -Not supported by empirical evidence

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(Social approach) Social Learning Theory

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Emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment in learning behavior. -Boys and girls are being reinforced for gender-typical behavior and \"punished\" for gender-atypical behavior -Reinforced behaviors become more frequent, punished behaviors become extinct

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(Social approach) Social Learning Theory

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Emphasizes imitation and modeling -Imitating exact behaviors, modeling rules that can result in new behaviors consistent with the rules.

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(Social approach) Criticisms to social learning theory

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-Child is seen as passive recipient of influence -Ignores cognitive development and how it affects learning -Does not account for why gender in particular is an important category

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(Social approach) Social Role Theory

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-Pioneered by Alice Eagly -Social roles are important for maintaining stereotypes...think gender roles -Focuses on communal and agentic characteristics -Emphasizes status and power differences. -Acknowledges the possibility of changing social roles.

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(Social approach) Ecological Theory

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-Pioneered by Bronfenbrenner: the environment is a set of nested systems, individual (child) at the center (microsystem) -Emphasizes considering the context(circumstances, setting) of development

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(Social approach) Social Construction Theory

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-Is a postmodern theory -Modern perspective: there is an objective world that can be discovered using methods of science -Postmodern perspective: there is no absolute objective knowledge. Knowledge is socially constructed, and affected by time, place, culture, and social experience of the knower

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(Social approach) Social Construction Theory cont...

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-Gender differences exist because they are functional, such as in the division of labor, but roles change. -Emphasizes: doing gender -Studies cross cultural and historical differences (in gender and gender roles) as proof for constructionism

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(Social approach) Criticism for social construction theory

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Ignores biological influences on gender development.

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Which social approach does this describe? \"Girls focus on having children, boys and girls model after same-sex parent\"

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Psychoanalytic theory

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Which social approach does this describe? \"Girls have been reinforced to like dolls, boys reinforced to like trucks\"

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Social learning theory

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Which social approach does this describe? \"Children follow social roles of girls being communal and boys being agentic\"

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Social role theory

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Which social approach does this describe? \"Children are part of several systems that encourages this behavior\"

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Ecological theory

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Which social approach does this describe? \"This preference is arbitrary and driven by people's perception of gender roles\"

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Social construction

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Cognitive approaches typically account for

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social AND cognitive factors

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(Cognitive approach) Developmental Constructivism

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Acknowledging that a child is an active participant and constructs own knowledge

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(Cognitive approach) Social Cognitive Theory

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-Proposed by Albert Bandura -Adds cognitive aspects to social learning theory -Triadic reciprocal determinism

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(Cognitive approach) Social Cognitive Theory's triadic reciprocal determinism

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-B: Behavior -P: Personal cognitions and perceptions, including biological factors -E: External environment

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(Cognitive approach) Gender Schema Theory

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-Children organize knowledge into schemata -How does children's basic understanding of gender and their gender schemata affect their interactions with and processing of objects, people, or events in the world -Information consistent with schemata are easier to process, remember, and approve of

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According to this theory, a child will see an object such as a doll, and associate that doll with a girl. It is meant to be a girl's toy, from what you have been taught/reinforced to think, and you remember it's for girls easier. If you're a boy and presented a doll, the boy will avoid playing with it because there are societal/cultural expectations not to play with the doll.

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Gender Schema Theory

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(Cognitive approach) Developmental Intergroup Theory

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-Focuses on social relationships, with an emphasis on cognitive processes. -Especially concerned with how stereotyping and prejudice emerge and are maintained. -Focuses on why particular categories, like gender and race, become important...why not eye color or hair color?

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Steps to the Developmental Intergroup Theory

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Establish psychological prominent conditions/important aspects of gender--->categorize individuals encountered--->develop stereotypes and prejudices about social groups

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Which cognitive approach does this describe? \"Children learn that these toys are for their gender, and this affects their interest in them\"

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Social Cognitive Theory

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Which cognitive approach does this describe? \"These toys fit their gender schemata of male-typical and female-typical toys\"

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Gender Schema Theory

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Which cognitive approach does this describe? \"Children favor activities that are consistent with their ingroups\"

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Developmental Intergroup Theory

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Some of the recurring themes in the study of psychology of gender include all of the following EXCEPT:

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Differences are largely driven by genetic factors

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According to the current usage, a bias against lesbians, gays, bisexuals, or any group that is not exclusively heterosexual is known as:

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Heterosexism

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\"The way marriage is currently designed, women are basically servants who spend most of their energy improving the lives of other people.\" :

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Radical feminism

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\"Laws must be made to guarantee women the right to be educated the same as men; women need to reach their full potential, just like men do.\" :

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Liberal feminism

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On the gender-career implicit associations test (IAT), what is the percentage of people who have slight, moderate or strong associations between male-career and female-family? :

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76%

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According to Fiske et al.'s (2002) research on warmth and competence, people who are perceived as warm and not competent evoke feelings of_______:

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Pity

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Which of the following is not a negative consequence of stereotyping?

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Freeing cognitive capacity

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Suppose that you know an individual who refused to hire a woman for a job—simply on the basis of her gender. This would be an example of:

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Discrimination

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Based on the information about attitudes towards women's competence, which of the following situations is most likely to show devaluation of women? :

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When a male is evaluating a woman's performance in a traditionally masculine area.

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Which of the following is NOT one of the improvements in the study of the psychology of gender since the 1960s? :

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Equal numbers of males and females in research studies (this needs to improve!)

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What is the percentage of children born with intersex conditions? :

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2%

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The masculine-feminine dichotomy postulates that_______ :

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Individuals are either masculine or feminine

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Research shows that in general individuals with Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS) show female-typical behavior. This suggests that:

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There are no genes on the Y chromosome that affect behavior

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Typically, individuals have ______ pair(s) of autosomes and _____ pair(s) of sex chromosomes.

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22, 1

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To study the effect of testosterone on behavior, the following samples are typically studied, EXCEPT:

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Individuals with Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (because AIS people are insensitive to testosterone, so testosterone does not even have an effect on their behavior to begin with- testosterone is not sensitive to these people so therefore no effect on behavior)

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The following statements are all true of the human brain, EXCEPT:

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Lateralization explains women's better language skills

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Andrew believes that women are more talkative than men. Samantha disagrees, saying that men are in fact more talkative. Based on scientific research, who do you think is right? :

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They are both wrong. Research shows that on average men and women use about the same number of words per day.

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Suppose that a high school math teacher is trying to determine why Anna has the highest grade in trigonometry. Which of the following attributions is the teacher most likely to make? :

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\"Anna got really lucky\"

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The current research on gender comparisons in moral reasoning shows that____________: ***Check question and answer in slides for moral reasoning**

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overall, there are gender similarities in this area???

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Overall, females are more likely to express all of the following emotions, EXCEPT:

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Anger

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Ella and Jason are two toddlers (2 years old) that you are observing for 2 consecutive days to watch for how much they smile and cry. Based on evidence from studies with young children who will show higher rates of smiling and crying over two days? :

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Jason and Ella will cry and smile at equal rates

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Research on helping behavior in children and adults suggests that among children, _____ are more helpful and among adults ________ are more helpful.

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girls, men

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What best describes how parents talk about emotions to their children? :

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Parents talk to daughters more about fear and sadness and to sons more about anger

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\"Children follow social roles of girls being communal and boys being agentic..\" Which theory would use this as an explanation for children's toy preferences? :

answer

Social Role Theory

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How about this explanation? \"This preference is arbitrary and driven by people's perception of gender roles.\" :

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Social Construction Theory

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\"Toy preferences are hard-wired.\" :

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Genetic/hormonal explanations

Psych396 Lecture 8: Explaining gender development and practice test questions

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