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memory

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the persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information.

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encoding

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the processing of information into the memory system.

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storage

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the retention of encoded information over time.

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retreival

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the process of getting formation out of memory.

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parallel processing

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the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously.

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sensory memory

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the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

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short-term memory

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activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing.

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long-term memory

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the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills, and experience.

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working memory

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a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information.

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explicit memory

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memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."

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effortful processing

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encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

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automatic processing

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unconscious encoding of the incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information.

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implicit memory

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retention independent of conscious recollection.

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iconic memory

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a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second.

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echoic memory

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a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled for about 3 or 4 seconds.

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chunking

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organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

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mnemonics

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memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

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spacing effect

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the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice.

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testing effect

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enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply reading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

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shallow processing

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encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.

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deep processing

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encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

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hippocampus

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a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.

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flashbulb memory

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a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

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long-term potentiation

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an increase in a synapses' firing potential after brief, rapids stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

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recall

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a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

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recognition

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a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test.

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relearning

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a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when leaning material for a second time.

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priming

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the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception.

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mood-congruent memory

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the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

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serial position effect

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our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

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anterograde amnesia

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an inability to form new memories.

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retrograde amnesia

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an inability to retrieve information from one's past.

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proactive interference

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the disruptive effect of old information on new information.

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retroactive interference

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the disruptive effect of new information on old information.

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repression

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in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

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misinformation effect

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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

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source amnesia

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attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.

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deja vu

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the eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

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cognition

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all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

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concept

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a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

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prototype

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a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories.

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creativity

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the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

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convergent thinking

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narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

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divergent thinking

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expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).

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algorithm

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a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

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heuristic

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a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently.

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insight

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a sudden and novel realization of the solution to a problem.

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confirmation bias

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a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contrary evidence.

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mental set

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a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

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intution

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an effortless, immediate autonomic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.

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representative heuristic

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judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes.

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availability heuristic

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estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

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overconfidence

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the tendency to be more confident than correct--to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

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belief perseverance

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clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

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framing

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the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

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language

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our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

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phoneme

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in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

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morpheme

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in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word.

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grammar

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in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others.

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babbling stage

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beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.

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one-word stage

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the stage in speech development, from about, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

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two-word stage

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beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.

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telegraphic speech

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early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs.

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aphasia

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impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

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Broca's area

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controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

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Wernicke's area

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controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

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linguistic determinism

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Whorf's hypothesis that language predetermines the way we think

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imagery

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mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding.

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Semantic Encoding-

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the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

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Prosocial Behavior

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positive constructive helpful behavior the opposite of antisocial behavior

Myers AP Psychology Unit 7: Memory and Cognition – Flashcards

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