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Krashen and Terrell's stages of SLA

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Level 1: pre-production (students are listening to the new language but rarely speaking it, might last up to 6 months), Level 2: early production (students begin to use 1 word or short phrases to communicate, might last up to 6 months), Level 3: speech emergence (student will use phrases and short sentences, acquiring an expressive vocabulary of about 3,000 words, stage takes from 1 to 3 years to complete), Level 4: intermediate fluency (teachers should focus on learning strategies, takes from 3 to 4 years to reach), and Level 5: advanced fluency (usually takes from 5 to 7 years)

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Krashen's Theory of SLA

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consists of: the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, and the Affective Filter

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Natural Order hypothesis (Krashen)

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the grammatical rules and structures of a language are acquired in a predictable order

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Monitor hypothesis (Krashen)

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language that is acquired through natural means is edited, before or after production, for correctness and accuracy by the conscious learning system - extroverts tend to be underusers, while introverts, perfectionists, and self-conscious individuals tend to be overusers

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Acquisition-Learning hypothesis (Krashen)

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subconscious language acquisition requires meaningful interaction and natural communication in the second language

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the Input hypothesis (Krashen)

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acquiring second language ability requires that the learner receives comprehensive input that slightly exceeds the learner's current level of ability

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the Affective Filter (Krashen)

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affective factors such as emotions, feelings, and dispositions can impact SLA, being nervous likely would cause the affective filter to be "up"

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overgeneralization

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extending a grammatical rule inappropriately such as adding -ed to the end of irregular verbs ("The boy runned home.")

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Chomsky's Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

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humans are born with a special biological brain mechanism, called a Language Acquisition Device (LAD), the ability to learn language is innate, that nature is more important than nurture, and that experience using language is only necessary in order to activate the LAD. Chomsky based his assumptions on his work in linguistics, but underestimates the influence that thought/cognition and language have on each other's development, often his work is referred to as "Nativist"

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Piaget: Cognitive Constructivism

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these stages are predictable, but the ages of children entering them may vary 1) sensorimotor, 2) preoperational, 3) concrete operations, and 4) formal operations

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Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development (1978)

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learning is enhanced by social interaction, based on the premise that learning cannot be understood without consideration of its cultural and social context. Famous terms with his theory include: self-regulation, private speech, the zone of proximal development, and scaffolding

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3 SLA factors

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error analysis (recognizing patterns of errors), interlanguage (analyzing what aspects of the target language are universal), and developmental patterns (the order in which features of a language are acquired and the sequence in which a specific feature is acquired)

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recent theorizing: "Intentionality"

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children are active learners who co-construct their worlds. Their language development is part of their holistic development, emerging from social, emotional, and cognitive interactions. Adults need to be able to "mind read" and adjust their side of the co-construction to relate to an individual child's understanding and interpretation - truly listening to young children is the best way to promote their language development

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silent period

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the stage when a learner knows perhaps 500 receptive words but feels uncomfortable producing speech (aka the receptive or pre-production stage); the absence of speech does not indicate a lack of learning and teachers should not try to force the learner to speak, CCQ by miming or pointing

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private speech (Vygotsky)

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the learner knows about 1,000 receptive words and speaks in 1 or 2-word phrases/yes, no/either, or (aka the early production stage) the self-talk learners use to monitor and guide themselves as they work through a problem or complete a learning task

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lexical chunks

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the learner knows about 3,000 receptive words and can typically communicate using short phrases or sentences; long sentences typically have grammatical errors (aka the speech emergence stage)

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formulaic speech

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the learner knows about 6,000 receptive words and begins to make complex statements, state opinions, ask for clarification, share thoughts, and speak at greater length (aka the intermediate language proficiency stage)

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experimental or simplified speech

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when the learner develops a level of fluency and can make semantic and grammar generalizations (aka the advanced language proficiency stage)

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BICS/CALP specific skills

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summarizing, paraphrasing, listening, questioning, initiating, and turn-taking

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grammar-translation method

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traditional approach to language learning, emphasis is placed on helping students read and appreciate the literature of the new language with the expectation that students will speak and write in their native language better as well as grow intellectually, little emphasis on L2 speaking and listening, teacher is the authority

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direct method

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the teacher directs class activities, but students interact and are more like partners in the teaching/learning process, vocabulary is emphasized over grammar, and all 4 language skills are used, but speaking predominates, the target language is used from the onset and students induce grammar rules from usage. Activities include: reading aloud, q and a exercises, dictation, fill-in-the-blank exercises, and writing paragraphs

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audio-lingual method

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uses only the target/L2 language, the teacher presents dialogues, students repeat each line and practice changing 1 or more words in sentences. The teacher uses cues and pictures, introduces new vocabulary through dialogues, presents grammar through examples, and analyzes the target language and students' L1 to anticipate and address difficulties, also teaches the culture of the target language

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the silent way

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learning becomes more important than teaching, all 4 skills are worked on, and meaning is just as important as form. The elements of the language are introduced logically, allowing students to expand via self-expression on what students already know.

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community language learning

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evolved from Charles Curran's Community-Learning approach, emphasizes 1) a commitment between teachers and learners to trust one another and the learning process, and 2) approaches learning as a dynamic and creative process. Teachers assist students in communications by supplying chunks of language in the L1 to ensure comprehension. Students generate language that is recorded and transcribed, and time is allowed for students to reflect on the experience and listen to their own voice ("whole-person approach)

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TPR

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Simon Says

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communicative approach

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learning to use the language rather than learning the rules of the language usage, students use authentic materials, scrambled sentences, language games, pictures, make predictions, role-play, and receive feedback from the students and teacher

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SLA programs must include:

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comprehensible "input," encouragement/not intimidation, an absence of strict teaching of grammar rules and structures, and conversations and interactions with native speakers

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interlanguage

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a strategy used by an ELL to compensate for his/her lack of proficiency while learning a 2nd language, almost considered an 'L3"

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interlanguage characteristics

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overgeneralization, simplification, and L1 interference/language transfer

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simplification

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refers to the L2 learner using resources that require limited vocabulary to aid comprehension and allow the learner to listen, read, and speak in the target language at a very elementary level

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L1 interference/language transfer

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occurs when a learner's primary language influences his/her progress in the L2, most commonly affects pronunciation, grammar structures, vocabulary, and semantics

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fossilization

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occurs when non-L1 forms become fixed in the interlanguage of the L2 learner, ELLs are highly susceptible to this phenomenon in the early stages

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influence of cognitive factors on SLA

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problem-solving, method of approaching the learning of new information, choices regarding what to ignore and what to pay attention to

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influence of affective factors on SLA

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self-esteem, motivation (instrumental and integrative), anxiety, and attitude

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instrumental motivation

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acquiring a 2nd language for a specific reason (getting a job)

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integrative motivation

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acquiring a 2nd language to fulfill a wish to communicate with a different culture

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acculturation

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the process of becoming accustomed to the customs, language, practices, and environment of a new culture - influenced by the learner's desire and ability to become a part of the dominant culture

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Schumann's model of acculturation

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1) the primary (L1) and English language groups (L2) view each other with mutual respect, have optimistic attitudes, and are compatible, 2) the L1 and L2 groups both wish for the primary group to assimilate into the culture, 3) the L1 and L2 groups agree/accept to share social services and conveniences, and 4) the L1 group wants to remain in the area beyond a temporary status

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constructivism

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the view that learning should promote a sense of responsibility, encourage exploration, problem solving, inquiry, and discovery in individual and collaborative settings. Constructivists believe that students construct knowledge by making connections between present learning experiences and the existing knowledge they already possess. Students are actively engaged and often in collaborative groups. This theory evolved from Dewey, Piaget, Vygotsky, etc.

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self-regulation (Vygotsky)

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the ability to learn and solve problems on one's own without assistance

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zone of proximal development (Vygotsky)

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the distance between a student's independent level of problem-solving ability and the student's potential level of problem-solving ability that can be achieved with assistance from an adult or more capable peer

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scaffolding (Vygotsky)

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(while in the zone of proximal development) the support and assistance provided for learning and problem solving, such as verbal cues or prompts, visual highlighting, diagrams, checklists, reminders, modeling, and examples. Scaffolding is more intense and frequent at first but should be diminished as learners become self-regulated.

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benefits of bilingualism

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enhances problem solving and analytical skills, allows better formation of concepts, increases visual-social abilities, furthers logical reasoning, and supports cognitive flexibility

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structural approach

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a teacher presents students with an explicit description of grammatical structures or rules which are subsequently practiced, first in a mechanical manner and later in a communicative manner

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integrative tests

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the outcome of realizing that tests that focus on the details of language learners, needed to include the ability of ELL students to communicate. They use such techniques as clozes, with every certain number of words left blank and students must fill them in. This gives evaluators a better understanding of a student's ability to communicate and understand communication in their L2.

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microlinguistics

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refers to research with a linguistic slant, often focusing on dialect and stylistic/register variation

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the "series method"

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came before behaviorism and was thought to be of value, it surfaced in the mid-nineteenth century and is considered the very first (theory-based), model for teaching English Language Learners. It is said this method was developed out of Gouin's own failure to learn German.

Competency 2: Knowledge of 1st and 2nd language acquisition – Flashcards

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