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-pacifist during WWI -rebel: opposed war when popular, opposed Watsonian behaviorism when popular

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Tolman

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Gestalt theory and behaviorism -freer with terms than most behaviorists, but dealt with observable stimuli/overt responses

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Tolman's theory is a blend of

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Unit of behavior-by being elementistic, the behaviorists were throwing away the baby with the bathwater -Molar behavior should be studied

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Main disagreement with behaviorists

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Purposive, always directed toward some goal -Whole behavior patterns had a meaning that would be lost if studied from an elementistic viewpoint

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Molar behavior

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Cat getting out of a puzzle pox, man driving home to dinner, a child hiding from a stranger

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Examples of molar behavior

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-what Tolman's theory has been referred to as -attempts to explain goal-directed behavior, or purposive behavior

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purposive behaviorism

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goal-directed behavior

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purposive behavior

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-used to describe behavior, just as the terms slow, fast, correct, incorrect, etc. describe behavior -behavior will look "as if" its behavior is goal-directed or purposive, i.e. as long as the organism is seeking something in the environment

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purposive

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-Cognitive theorists using rats is strange, but enjoyed working with them

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Use of rats

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a process of discovering what leads to what in the environment. i.e. when it's 5 PM (S1), dinner (S2) will follow. -ongoing process that required no motivation

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Learning to Tolman

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S-S theorist

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Rather than an S-R theorist, Tolman was a...

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-important because it determines which aspects of the environment the organism attends to -i.e. hungry organism attends to food-related events in the environment -drive state determines which aspects of the environment will be emphasized in its perceptual field

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Tolman and motivation

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perceptual emphasizer

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Motivation acts as a...

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Organism learns what is there, gradually develops a picture of the environment that can be used to get around in it. -picture=cognitive map

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cognitive map

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it is futile to look at individual responses -once the organism has developed a cognitive map, it can reach a particular goal from any number of directions

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Cognitive map concept vs behaviorists

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the organism will choose the shortest route or the one requiring the least amount of work -similar to habit family hierarchy (Hull)

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principle of least effort

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unimportant as a learning variable, but there is some similarity between what Tolman called confirmation and what other behaviorists called reinforcement

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Reinforcement to Tolman

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early tentative expectations -expectations are hunches about what leads to what -hypotheses that are confirmed are retained --> cognitive map develops

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hypotheses

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learning that one event leads to another -a belief or hypothesis about the occurrence of a future event -an expectancy that is consistently confirmed develops into a means-end readiness

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expectancy

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a belief -when an expectation is consistently confirmed, the organism ends up "believing" that if it acts in a certain way, a certain result will follow

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means-end readiness

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similar to the notion of reinforcement, however, it does not have to involve overt behavior -when the prediction made about some future event is found to be accurate

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confirmation of expectancy

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any physiological need state of the organism, any motivational state of the organism

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hypothesis-testing process does not depend on...

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Often, a rat pauses at a choice point and looks around as if thinking about the various alternatives available to it-pausing and looking around at the choice point. -different approaches are tested cognitively rather than behaviorally (one response tried, then another until solution)

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vicarious trial and error

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the fact that information can exist but be utilized under certain conditions (see cognitive map)

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Learning and performance distinction: basis

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Learning that is not immediately translated into performance. -very important to Tolman

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latent learning

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3 groups of rats learning to solve a maze 1: never reinforced for correctly traversing the maze 2: always reinforced 3: reinforced on the 11th day

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Tolman and Honzik experiment with latent learning

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1. Slight improvement in performance even in the group never receiving reinforcement 2. The reinforced group shows steady imporvement. 3. The third group reinforced on the 11th day performed even better than the consistently reinforced group

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Result of Tolman and Hoznik experiment

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When animals are reinforced after a period of nonreinforcement, their performance very rapidly equals or exceeds that of animals that had been reinforced from the onset of the experiment.

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Conclusion of Tolman/Hoznik experiment

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If an animal has learned an S-S expectancy and is given the opportunity to observe that that response will no longer lead to food, such observation will itself lead to extinction. i.e. rat learned to traverse maze to obtain food --> empty goal box: stop traversing maze

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Latent extinction

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motivational factors -reinforcement provides an incentive for performing a response

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S-R explanation of latent extinction

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Tolman maintained that animals learn WHERE things are, whereas S-R theorists maintained that specific responses are earned to specific stimuli

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Place learning

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Two groups of rats Response Learning: Had to turn in same direction to be reinforced Place Learning: Had to be in same place to be reinforced

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Tolman, Ritchie, and Kalish experiments

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Place learners learned much faster. It was more "natural" for the animals to learn places than to learn specific responses.

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Result of TRK experiment

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Trained in an apparatus, apparatus replaced --> 18 alternative paths

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TRK experiment #2

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the most frequently picked path was the one closest to the goal -again looked as if animals were responding in terms of where something was, rather than in terms of specific responses

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Result of TRK experiment #2

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when reinforcers were changed, behavior would be disrupted because a particular reinforcer becomes part of what is experienced

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Reinforcement expectancy

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Trained rats to run a maze for brain mush or sunflower seeds --> switched reinforcers --> considerably disrupted performance

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Elliott's experiment

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-Group on bran mush performed better than sunflower seeds before the switch -After the switch, the group on sunflower seeds much worse than the group consistently trained on sunflower seeds

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Results of Elliott's experiment

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person "not acting like themselves" pay raise larger or smaller than expected

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situations w/discrepancy in expectation vs experience

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Leon Festinger: when a person's beliefs do not conform to what actually occurs, they experience a psychological negative drive state and seek ways to ways to reduce it.

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cognitive dissonance

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choice point: where rats decides to turn either R (BR) or L (BL) trained to turn left: behavior ratio/dependent variable=BL/(BL+BR) behavior ratio=determined by collective experiences that come from having turned both ways at the choice point on various trials --> animal learns what leads to what

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The Determiners of Behavior at a Choice Point

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the accumulated knowledge that comes from making both B[L] and B[R] responses and seeing what they do -independent variable b/c directly influenced the dependent variable, under control of experimenter

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SigmaOBO

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M, G, S, R, P, sigmaOBO

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independent variables that affect performance

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maintenance schedule/deprivation schedule

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M

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appropriateness of goal object (reinforcer must be related to the animal's current drive state)

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G

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types and modes of stimuli provided, vividness of the cues or signals available to the animal in the learning situation

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S

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types of motor responses required in the learning situation, for example, running, sharp turns, etc

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R

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pattern of succeeding and preceding maze units; the pattern of turns that needs to be made to solve a maze as determined by the experimenter

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P

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-each interacts with each of the independent variables, and a combination of all these variables working together is what produces behavior

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Individual difference variable

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H A T E

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list of individual difference variables

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heredity

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H

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age

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A

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previous training

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T

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special endocrine, drug, or vitamin conditions

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E

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a set of intervening variables

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theory

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a construct created by the theorist to aid in explaining the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable -created an intervening variable to go along with each of his independent variables -tied to both an independent variable and a dependent variable -each was operationally defined

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intervening variable

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demand, which in turn is related to performance

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maintenance schedule creates...

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-attempted to make Tolman's terms more precise and his concepts more easily tested -describe Tolman's theory as S1-R1-S2 S1 elicits expectancy of some kind, R1 indicates the manner in which the expectancy is acted on, and S2 indicates what the organism thinks will happen as a result of its actions

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MacCorquodale/Meehl

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-Cathexes -Equivalence Beliefs -Field Expectancies -Field-Cognition Modes -Drive Discriminations -Motor Patterns

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6 Kinds of Learning

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the learned tendency to associate certain objects with certain drive states i.e. certain foods might be able to satisfy the hunger drive of individuals who live in a particular country

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Cathexes

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when the organism has learned to avoid certain objects while in a certain drive state

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negative cathexis

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when a "subgoal" has the same effect as the goal itself (close to secondary reinforcement, but more typically involves "social drives" over physiological ones) i.e. high grades --> temporary reduction in need for love

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equivalence belief

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the organism learns what leads to what S-S learning (sign sign)-when the animal sees one sign, it learns to expect another to follow -only "reinforcement" necessary is the confirmation of a hypothesis

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field expectancies

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a strategy, a way of approaching a problem-solving situation -tendency to arrange the perceptual field in certain configurations=innate, modified by experience -effective FCM, or problem-solving strategies, transfer to related problems

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field-cognition mode

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the fact that organisms can determine their own drive state and can therefore respond appropriately i.e. can be trained to turn one way in a T maze when hungry, another when thirsty -if an organism's needs are not clear, its goals are not clear --> behavior may be inappropriate

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drive discrimination

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the learning of the overt behavior that the organism must utilize in reaching a desired goal -accepted Guthrie's interpretation of how responses become associated with stimuli

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motor pattern learning

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-Important: thinking, understanding, testing hypotheses -Small discussion groups -Teacher=consultant to assist in clarifying/confirm or disconfirm hypotheses -Student should be exposed to different viewpoints --> cognitive map -Extrinsic reinforcement is unnecessary

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Tolman and education

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-Latent learning -Heuristic: spatial learning, cognitive maps -Antagonist against the dominance of Hullian neobehaviorism

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Contributions of Tolman

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-Not easily subjected to empirical scrutiny -Difficult to account for all of his variables -Caused regression of psychology back into the mentalistic orientations of the 19th century

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Criticisms of Tolman

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