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learning

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a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation.

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classical conditioning

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a type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another.

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stimulus

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any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds

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reflex

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an involuntary response to a particular stimulus, such as the eyenlink response to a puff of air or salibation when food is placed in the mouth

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conditioned reflex

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a learned involuntary response

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unconditioned response

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a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning

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unconditioned stimulus

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a stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response withouth prior learning

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conditioned response

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the learned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus

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conditioned stimulus

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a neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned response.

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higher-order conditioning

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conditioning that occurs when conditioned stimuli are linked together to form a series of signals

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extinction

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in classical conditioning, the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as a result of repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned response.

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generalization

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in classical conditioning, the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus

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discrimination

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the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli

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taste aversions

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the intense dislike and/or avoidance of a particular food that has been associated with nausea or discomfort

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trial-and-error learning

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learning that occurs when a response is associated with a successful solution to a problem after a number of unsuccessful responses

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law of effect

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one of Thorndike's laws of learning, which states that the consequence, or effect, of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened.

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operant conditioning

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a type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated in order to increase or decrease the frequency of an existing response or to shape an entirely new response

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reinforcer

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anything that follows a response and strenghtens it or increase the probability that it will occur

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shaping

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an operant conditioning technique that consists of gradually molding a desired behavior by reinforming and movement in the direction of the desired response, thereby gradually guiding the responses towards the ultimate goal.

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Skinner box

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a soundproof chamber with a device for delivering food to an animal subject; used in operant conditioning experiments

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successive approximations

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a series of graudal steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired responses

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extinction

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in operant conditioning, the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as a result of the witholding of reinforcement

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generalization

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in operant conditioning, the tendency to make the learned response to a stimulus similar to that for which the response was originally reinforced

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discriminative stimulus

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a stimulus that signals whether a certain response or behavior is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished

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reinforcement

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any event that follows a response and strengthenes or increases the probability that the response will be repeated

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positive reinforcement

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any pleasant or desirable consequence that follows a response and increases the probability that the response will be repeated

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negative reinforcement

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the termination of an unpleasant condition after a response, which increases the probability that the response will be repeated

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primary reinforcer

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a reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning

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secondary reinforcer

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a reinforcer that is acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcement that is administered after every desired or correct response; the most effective method of conditioning a new response

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partial reinforcement

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a pattern of reinforcement in which some but not all correct responses are reinforced

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schedule of reinforcement

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a systematic process for administering partial reinforcement that produces a distinct rate and pattern of responses and degree of resistance to extinction

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fixed-ratio schedule

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a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct, nonreinforced responses

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variable-ratio schedule

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a schedule in which a reinforces is given after a varying number of nonreinforced responses, based on an average ratio. best schedul

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fixed-interval schedule

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a schedule in which a reinforcer is given following the first correct response after a specific period of time has elapsed

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variable-interval schedule

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a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after the first correct response that follows a varying time of nonreinforcement, based on an average time

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partial-reinforcement effect

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the greater resistance to extinction that occurs when a portion, rather than all, of the correct responses are reinforced.

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punishment

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the removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleaseant stimulus, thereby lowering the probability of a response.

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avoidance learning

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learning to avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequances or phobias

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learned helplessness

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a passive resignation to aversive conditions that is learned through repeated exposure to inescapable or unavoidable aversive events

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biofeedback

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the use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that they can learn, with practice, to exercise control over them.

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behavior modification

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a method of changing behavior through a systematic program based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning.

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token economy

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a program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items or privileges

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cognitive processes

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mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representations

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insight

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the sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent

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latent learning

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learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated to do so

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cognitive map

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a mental representation of a spatial arrangement such as a maze

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observational learning

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learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation

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modeling

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another name for observational learning

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model

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the individual who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated

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modeling effect

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learning a new behavior through the acquisition of new responses

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elicitation effect

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exhibiting a behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situation

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disinhibitory effect

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displaying a previously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving punishment

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inhibitory effect

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suppressing a behavior because a model is punished for displaying the behavior

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Memory

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System that recieves, organizes, alters, stores, and retrieves information gained from the senses

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There are three processes of memory

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Endcoding, Storage, Retrival

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Encoding

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What ever is coming (any sensory inofmration) eyes-light-neural image

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Storage

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Hold on to information for a time

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Retrival

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getting the information

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Three Models of Memory

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Information-Processing Model Levels-Of-Processsing Model Parrallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model

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Information-Processing Model

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Memory storage is similar to a computer process

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Levels-Of-Processesing Model

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Information that is "deeply processed" according to its meaning willl be remembered better

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Parrallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model

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Memory processes take place at the same time of a large network of neural connections.

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Sensory Memory

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Very 1st Stage of Memory: Information enters the nervous system through sensory systems Iconic Sensory Memory Echoic Sensory Memory

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Iconic Sensory Memory

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Visual Memory

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Iconic Sensory Memory Contains

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Capacity High/Low Duration -Eidetic Imagery- Remember everything

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Echoic Sensory Memory

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Sound Memory

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Short-Term Memory (STM) -Selective Attention:

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Information is HELD for brief periods of time -Ability to focus on one stimulus from amoung all sensory input

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Working Memory

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Active system that processes information held in short-term memory

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In Working Memory there are 3 Interrelated Working Memory Systems:

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1. Visual Sketchpad 2. Auditory recorder 3. Central Executive

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Short-Term Memory (STM) (2 Types) Average Capacity=

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Chunking Maintenance Rehearsal

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Chunking

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Bits of information are combined into meaningful units, or chunks, so more information can be held in short term memory

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Maintenance Rehearsal

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Repeating information over and over in one's head (or out loud) to maintain it in short-term memory. (auditory)

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Duration of Short-Term Memory

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12-30 Seconds with out rehearsal

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Long-Term Memory (LTM)

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The systerm of memory into which information is place to be kept more or less permanently. -Elaborative Rehearsal

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Elaborative Rehearsal

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Method of transfer from Short-Term Memory to Long -Term Memory by making information meaningful

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Types of Long-Term Memory

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Procedural (non-delacrative)(Emplicit Memory) Declarative memory (Explicit Memory)

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Procedural LTM

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Memory not typically brought into conscious awarness

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Declarative Memory

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Facts, things people know

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Types of Declarative Memory (LTM)

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Semantic Memory Episodic Memory

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Semantic Memory

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Type of declarative that are taught or learned like language

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Episodic Memory

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Daily experiences or daily events

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Semantic and Episodic Memory are forms of ______ memory. (Definition)

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Explicit Memory: memory that is consiously known

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Formation of Long-Term Memory (What, Where, Change)

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Engram Hippocampus Consolidation

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Engram

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The physical change in the brain when memory is formed Ex. Those that play the violin have a larger part in brain

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Consolidation

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Neurons change structure in brain

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Hippocampus

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Area of brain responsible for the formation of Long-Term Memory

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Organization of Memory

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Long-Term Memory is organized in terms of related meaning and concepts. Sematic Network Model

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Sematic Network Model

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Theory that assumes information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion

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Cues to Help Rememer

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Retrieval Cue Encoding Specificity State Dependent Learning

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Retrieval Cue

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A stimulus for remembering

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Encoding Specificity

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The tendency for memory to be improving if surroundings match at encoding and retrival. The tendency for memory to be better if you take a test where you learned the information

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State Dependent Learning

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When learning in altered state, it is easier to recall things in same altered state

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Recall

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Information is "pulled" from very few external cues Ex. Total Recall is an Essay

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Recall Serial Position Effect is Made of

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Primary Effect: tend to remember the first part Recency Effect: remember the most recent or last

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Recognition

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Matching information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact

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False Posative

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Error of recognition in which people think that they recognize some stimulus that is not actually in memory. (really believe it to be true and don't admit to being wrong)

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Eye Witness Testinmoney: Encoding Familiarity-

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Knowing

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Eye Witness Testimoney: Encoding Physical ability-

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being able to see, hear

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Eye Witness Testimoney: Encoding Own-Race Base-

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Being able to identigy own race better than others

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Eye witness Testimoney: Encoding Weapon Effect(Yerks Dodson Law)-

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Having a gun at point blank will not allow people to remember or encode information

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Retrival Problems and Witnesses Constructive Processing:

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memories that are altered, revised or influenced by experience or new information

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Retrival Problems and Witnesses Misinformation effect-

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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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Retrival Problems and Witnesses Source Monitoring Error-

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Think you rememeber but are getting info from other source

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Retrival Problems and Witnesses Suggestive Questioning-

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Questioning that sways the person who is being asked

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Retrival Problems and Witnesses Photo-Spread/Line up Bias

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It lines people up to be choosen, when person may no even be in line up

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Confidence and Memory Accuracy The U.S. Supreme Court says...

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The amount of confidence witness exhibits is a good indicator of thier accuracy

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Confidence and Memory Accuracy Studies have shown that confidence and accuracy are...

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NOT strongly related

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Forgetting Theories Encoding Failure:

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Failure to process information into memory

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Forgetting Theories Memory Trace Decay:

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Memory trace decays after time and practice

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Forgetting Theories Interference Theory -Proactive interference: -Retroactive interference:

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-old information intereferes with new information -new information interferes wit old information

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Amnesia Retrograde Amnesia:

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Loss of memory from the past

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Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia:

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inability to form new long-term memories (declarative memory)

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Amnesia Infantil Amnesia:

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The ability to forget or remember memories from much before age 3

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Amnesia Autobiographical memory:

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memory which is story of life

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