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adolescent psych – Flashcards

Jay Barber

8 July 2022

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Multidisciplinary approach

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biological, social, sociological, cultural, and historical perspectives

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Adolescence

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The second decade of life Greek meaning: "To grow into adulthood" Lengthened in 20th century—puberty occurs earlier, social roles delayed until mid (or even late!) 20's.

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Three Stages of Adolescence

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Early adolescence: 10-13 Middle adolescence: 14-17 Late adolescence: 18-21 Similar to how young people are grouped into educational institutions (middle school, high school, and college)

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Three Fundamental Transitions

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Biological: The onset of puberty and how puberty affects psychological development and social relationships Cognitive: The emergence of more advanced thinking abilities (more hypothetical and abstract terms) Social: How society defines children versus those who are seen as ready to become adults

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Ecological Perspective

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Perspective on development which emphasizes the broader context/environment in which development occurs Urie Bronfenbrenner (1979)

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Four main contexts for adolescents

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families, peer groups, schools, and work

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Bronfenbrenner

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Individual -characteristics/demographics Microsystem: Immediate settings of activities, roles, and interpersonal relations Mesosystem: Contains the microsystems Exosystem: Settings which do not specifically contain the developing person, but influence "his or her developmental possibilities" and daily life (examples: BC's policies, parents work, town you grew up in, federal government, workplace, etc...) Macrosystem: Overarching culture, beliefs, and patterns of a given society (examples: democracy, meritocracy, religion, economy, etc...). Chronosystem: Historical events and time that shape development (examples: technology revolution, 9-11, change in presidency, etc...)

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psychosocial

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Elements of development that are psychological and social in nature—like identity

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psychosocial elements of adolescents

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Identity: Who you are as an individual Autonomy: Establishing a healthy sense of independence Intimacy: Forming close and caring relationships with others (friendships and romantic) Sexuality: Expressing sexual feelings and enjoying physical contact with others Achievement: Being successful and competent members of society Psychosocial problems: Drug and alcohol use/abuse, delinquency, depression, etc....

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theoretical perspectives on adolescence

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Biosocial Organismic Learning Sociological Historical & Anthropological

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Biosocial Theory

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Stress the hormonal and physical changes of puberty as the driving forces Hall's Theory of Recapitulation (1904) Development of the individual parallels development of human species Storm and stress: Hormonal changes of puberty cause upheaval

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organismic theory

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Like biosocial stress the importance of biological changes, but also examine how contextual forces interact with and modify biological forces Freudian Theory: Psychosexual conflicts that arise at different points of development; adolescence as a time of upheaval Eriksonian Theory: Psychosocial crises characteristic of each period of growth—biological developments move individual from one stage to next, but face psychosocial conflict at each stage Piagetian Theory: Changes in the nature of thinking or cognition—as children mature, pass through (biological) stages of cognitive development, but also influenced by changes in intellectual environment

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Learning Theory

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Stress the context in which behavior takes place; not especially developmental Behaviorism: The process of reinforcement and punishment (Skinner, 1953) Social Learning Theory: The ways in which adolescents learn to behave through modeling and observation (Bandura, 1959)

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Sociological Theory

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How adolescents, as a group, come of age in society (do not emphasize differences, focus on factors that adolescents have in common) Adolescent Marginality: Two themes Power difference exists between adults and adolescent generations Many adolescents are prohibited from occupying meaningful roles Intergenerational Conflict: Adolescents and adults grow up under different social circumstances and develop different sets of attitudes, values, and beliefs

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Historical & Anthropological

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: Examine the broader context in which young people come of age; adolescence as a developmental period has varied from one historical era to another Adolescence as an "invention:" Some theorists believe that adolescence is an entirely social invention—what do you think? Anthropological perspectives: View adolescence as a culturally defined experience Continuous: Transition into adulthood is gradual and peaceful Discontinuous: Transition into adulthood is abrupt and difficult

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Stereotypes vs. Scientific Study

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Adolescents are one of the most stereotyped groups in society Most stereotypes of adolescence are very negative: sex-crazed, foolish, irresponsible, difficult, combative, etc... Scientific study of adolescence has not provided evidence in support of these stereotypes

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Social Redefinition

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Process through which an individual's position or status is redefined by society

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Elongation of Adolescents

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Adolescence lasts longer today (in the US) than ever before Puberty is occurring earlier Entering into adult social roles later: work & family Some argue that the transition into adulthood is "too long, too vague, and too disorderly" and has had harmful effects on adolescents

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Inventionists

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Theorists who argue that the period of adolescence is a social invention Prior to mid 19th century (industrial revolution) adolescence as we know it did not exist, including the word "adolescence" Not until the late 19th century that adolescence is what it is today Lengthy preparation for adulthood Young people need guidance and supervision Remain economically dependent The word teenager was not introduced until 60 years ago Also in the 60's, with growth of college aged population and activism, the word "youth" began to define 18-22 year olds

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Changes in legal status during adolescence

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In most societies, it is not until adult status (legally) is attained that individuals permitted to participate in certain activities Subject to new set of laws and treated differently In the US huge inconsistency where we draw age boundaries between childhood and adulthood Issues around juvenile's being tried as adults in court

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process of social redefinition

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The process is not a single event (like puberty); begins around 15 or 16 and continues into young adulthood In many cultures, social redefinition of young people occurs in groups Cohort: A group of individuals who share common historical experiences at same STAGE in life; may also share attitudes, values, skills, or life experiences Common practices in the social redefinition process: Real or symbolic separation from parents Emphasis on differences between sexes (examples?) Passing on of information form older generation

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variations in social transitions

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Although social redefinition of adolescence is universal, transition itself varies greatly for different cultures Societies differ regarding social definition on two dimensions: Clarity: The explicitness of the transition Continuity: The smoothness of the passage (gradual or abrupt)

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variations in clarity

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Some societies utilize initiation ceremonies: formal introduction of adolescent into adulthood--examples? No formal ceremonies in the US marking transition from childhood to adolescence, or adolescence into adulthood Even if religious or cultural ceremonies exist, rite does not have much significance outside of family, friends, or religious community In traditional cultures, clarity of social redefinition is more formal Adolescents are treated as adults at different times by different people in different contexts!

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variations in continuity

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Continuous vs. discontinuous Discontinuous: In contemporary (western) society: little training for adult life, then thrust in abruptly Often segregated from work, family, and citizenship roles as adolescents Continuous: In traditional cultures focus on informal education of children/adolescents rather than formal education; accompany adult members of society

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The transition into adulthood in contemporary society: some challenges

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Do not know if prolonged and discontinuous passage to adulthood impedes or enhances psychosocial development Because of the discontinuity into adulthood in the US, those not college bound are having tremendous problems negotiating the passage into adulthood As labor force continues to grow more dependent on formal education, greater division between the "haves" and "have nots" Race/ethnicity differences: Due to discrimination, segregation, and racism, racially and ethnically minoritized adolescents (Black, Latino/a, Native American) have more trouble managing adulthood transitions (than White & Asian)—what are some examples? Foreign-born adolescent immigrants fair better in terms of mental health than same ethnic group who are American born "Americanization" is associated with worse, not better outcomes Economic differences: Poverty is a major factor impairing the transition into adulthood Associated with failure in school, unemployment, out-of-wedlock pregnancy (creates transitional difficulties) Also linked to race/ethnicity differences: minoritized adolescents more likely to grow up in poverty

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how to ease the development for those at risk

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Need a comprehensive approach to address: educational, employment, interpersonal, and health needs of adolescents from all walks of life Mentoring: Many at-risk adolescents lack positive adult role models; those who have been mentored less likely to have problems at school/home, use drugs and alcohol, get in trouble with the law

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Influence of neighborhood conditions

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Poverty more concentrated over past 40 years; clustering of poor families into economically and racially segregated communities Growing up in a poor neighborhood has a negative effect on adolescent behavior, achievement, and mental health Adolescents in impoverished urban communities (even compared to equally poor households in better neighborhoods) more likely to be involved in criminal activity, drop out of high school, etc... Interferes with successful transition into adulthood

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Collective efficacy

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: A community's social capital derived from members' common values and goals Poverty in neighborhoods breeds social disorganization and undermines collective efficacy Under conditions of low collective efficacy, social problems are "contagious"

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impact of stress

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Stressors associated with poverty undermine quality of people's relationships with each other (eg. Parenting) When parents are not effective in supervising/monitoring adolescents, more likely to associate with antisocial peers Adolescents growing up in poor neighborhoods more likely to be exposed to chronic community violence; this stressor also increases risk of behavioral, emotional, and physical health problems

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Limited access to resources

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Adolescents who grow up in poorer neighborhoods have access to fewer resources Fewer chances to engage in activities that facilitate positive development The more positive features an adolescent's environment contains, the better off they will be More sources of contextual risk (via the neighborhood) adolescent is exposed to, greater their chances of developing problems

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puberty and identity development

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When you change the way you look, sometimes feel like your personality/identity changes too

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cognitive changes and identity development

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Broadening of intellectual capabilities allows adolescents to think about themselves in new ways Possible selves Future orientation

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social roles and identity development

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With new social roles comes new choices and decisions

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identity as adolescent issue

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Researchers/theorists have taken three different approaches to how individual's identity changes over adolescence: Self-conceptions: Traits/attributes that individuals use to describe themselves Self-esteem: How positively or negative they feel about themselves Sense of identity: The extent to which individuals feel secure about who they are and who they are becoming

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changes in self conception

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Compared to children, adolescents use more complex, abstract, and psychological self-characterizations when describing themselves—example? Self-conceptions become more differentiated (specific) and better organized into a more logical/coherent whole Realization that personality is expressed in different ways in different circumstances, or may come across differently to different people, occurs in adolescence Recognize that inconsistencies and contradictions exist within personality—example? A more differentiated self concept allows adolescents to distinguish between actual self, ideal self, and feared self Consequence of adolescents recognizing they are not always consistent in their personality leads some to engage in false-self behavior More likely to do so in romantic and dating situations and with classmates

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changes in self conception: personality

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Most researchers approach the study of personality using the five-factor model (FFM) (McCrae & John, 1992) 5 critical personality dimensions or "factors" Extraversion (how outgoing and energetic) Agreeableness (how kind or sympathetic) Conscientiousness (how responsible and organized) Neuroticism (how anxious or tense) Openness (how curious and imaginative) Sliding scale for all of these factors—have a certain degree of openness, conscientiousness, etc... There are both genetic and individual differences on personality Can have temperamental predispositions that can be "hardened" in response to the environment Although individuals change (as a whole) from adolescence to adulthood in terms of their personality states—become more extraverted, more agreeable, more conscientious—underlying traits are stable over time at the individual level

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changes in self esteem

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Although a dramatic drop in self-esteem during adolescence typically does NOT occur, how adolescents feel about themselves fluctuates daily, particularly in early adolescence Self esteem becomes more stable between childhood and early adulthood 3 aspects of adolescents' self image: Self-esteem Self-consciousness Self-image stability Fluctuations in self-image more likely to occur between the ages of 12-14 Early adolescents have lower self-esteem, more self-conscious and a more unstable self-image Averages regarding self-esteem for adolescents as a whole often hide substantial differences between adolescents Many researchers believe that adolescents also evaluate themselves on several distinct dimensions: academics, athletics, appearance (physical self esteem), social relationships, and moral conduct Can have a very differentiated view of self based on these dimensions

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changes in self esteem: group differences

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Sex differences: Early adolescent girls' self esteem is lower, degree of self-consciousness is higher, and their self image is shakier than boys Racial/ethnics differences: Black adolescents have higher self-esteem than White adolescents, who have higher self-esteem than Latino/a, Asian, or Native American adolescents Some researchers argue that despite encounters with racism/prejudice, Black teenagers have positive support from adults in the Black community Other researchers argue that Black adolescents have a strong sense of racial/ethnic identity, which enhances overall self-esteem

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effects of high or low self esteem

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Across all demographic groups, self-esteem is enhanced by having the approval of others, particularly parents and peers, and doing well in school (academic success) Adolescents who derive their self-esteem from peers, rather than teachers or parents show more behavioral problems and poorer school achievement High self-esteem does enhance adolescents' well being Low self-esteem may lead to deviant activity & psychological distress that can last into adulthood Low self-esteem is one of several symptoms of depression

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Erik Erikson: identity

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Psychosocial development continues over entire life span—inner instincts vs. outer social demands; a social and mental process Development follows a universal sequence (in stages) Successful identity development involves resolving eight crises or dilemmas of "opposing possibilities;" if do not resolve crisis positively, still move to next stage Adolescent stage is "Identity vs. Role Confusion" (5th stage) Adolescent must develop their core sense of self, values, beliefs, and goals. Identity diffusion occurs when individuals lack a clear sense of self or purpose

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psychosocial moratorium

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According to Erikson, in order to resolve identity crisis, adolescent needs a psychosocial moratorium to explore and experiment Definition of psychosocial moratorium: Period during which individuals are free from excessive obligation and responsibilities; therefore can experiment with different roles and personalities Psychosocial moratorium can only occur in an environment that encourages it

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resolving the identity crisis

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According to Erikson, a sense of identity is experienced as a sense of well-being, a feeling of "being home in one's body," a feeling of continuity between the past and the future When the identity crisis of adolescence is successfully resolved, culminates in a series of basic life commitments: occupational, ideological, social, religious, ethical, and sexual (Côté, 2009) A defining characteristic of someone who has achieved a coherent sense of identity is they approach their life decisions with a strong sense of agency

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studying identity development over time

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Researchers have done both cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies to examine the development of a sense of identity Research shows that identity is not resolved during adolescence; rarely is identity even established by the age of 18 (Côté, 2009) No pattern in how identity is formed—adolescents do not move through various states in a set fashion; some get stuck at stages Some longitudinal studies show that individuals move through different statuses in identity exploration, even if originally in "identity achieved" Research typically focuses on the various stages adolescents move through, rather than how or why identity changes when it does Provoked by internal factors and specific life events or changes

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racial/ ethnic identity development

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For those not part of the majority, developing an integrated sense of racial or ethnic identity into overall identity is often an important task of late adolescence White adolescents in America are less likely than racially or ethnically minoritized individuals to choose labels based on their specific heritage to define themselves Among immigrant adolescents, vast differences between those who choose to associate with a broader ethnic/racial category (Latino/a or Asian) vs. specific country of origin (Mexican or Japanese)

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ethnic or racial socialization

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Process through which individuals develop an understanding of their ethnic or racial background Understanding and valuing one's race/culture Dealing with racism Succeeding in mainstream society Research results are mixed on whether or not ethnic/racial socialization (when encouraged early by parents) is a positive or negative occurrence. Having positive attitudes about own racial/ethnic group is correlated with having positive attitudes for other ethnic groups Positive mental health of racially/ethnically minoritized youth impacted by "savvy biculturalism"

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identity development for recent immigrants

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Adolescents who are recent immigrants report high levels of academic, familial, social and economic stress However, perform better in school, are less likely to be involved in delinquent behavior, and have less physical, emotional, behavioral problems than adolescents from same ethnic groups whose parents were born in America. What is this phenomenon known as? The process of identity development among adolescents from immigrant families also depends on context in which the family lives

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discrimination and its effects

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Must examine racial/ethnic (and overall) identity development within the social context in which the adolescent lives Studies of Asian, Black, & Latino youth have found that feeling discriminated against is predictive of conduct problems, depression, and lower school achievement Individuals with heightened sensitivity to discrimination may be better at perceiving more subtle signs of genuine racial bias Adolescents whose parents have emphasized the positive aspects of racial/ethnic socialization, and who have a more positive family relationship, fare better in the face of discrimination

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Multidimensional model of racial identity (MMRI)

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A theory of racial/ethnic identity which emphasizes three different phenomena: Race centrality: How important race is in defining individuals' identity Private regard: How individuals feel about being a member of their race Public regard: How individuals think others feel about their race

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multiethnic and multiracial adolescents

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Having two parents of different ethnic or racial background Understudied population Developing a sense of racial/ethnic identity may be especially challenging—why do you think that is? Often forced to select one ethnic or racial group (on college applications for instance), or select "other" Many biracial adolescents change their racial identity over time—either associating as monoracial, or back to biracial, etc... Racial/ethnic association often depends on physical appearance, and contextual factors—like friend group, community, etc...

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gender role development

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Although there are obvious physical differences developmentally for males and females, they are more alike in their attitudes, abilities, and behaviors than dissimilar Differences within groups of males or families more substantial Adolescent females tend to be more "people oriented" and males more "things or doing oriented," but sex differences in interests and attitudes are smaller than most people think

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gender intensification hypothesis

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Idea that pressure to behave in sex-appropriate ways intensifies during adolescence The impact of environmental factors on gender-role behavior is much stronger than the impact of the hormonal changes of puberty

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masculinity and femininity

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Males and female adolescents who behave in gender-typical ways are more accepted by their peers than those who do not However, the costs of behaving in gender-atypical ways are more significant for males (pressured not to behave in feminine ways) than females Easier for females to behave in more "masculine" ways in adolescence (i.e. athletics )than vice versa—do you agree with this statement? Interestingly, males with more traditionally masculine orientation are more likely to be involved in various types of problem behavior Females with more traditionally feminine gender-role orientation are more likely to develop more traditionally female psychological problems (like eating disorders)

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autonom as an adolescent issue

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Puberty and the development of autonomy Evolutionally, independence-seeking can be seen as a natural consequence of sexual and physical maturation Also may change how treated by others because look different Cognitive changes and the development of autonomy Cognitive changes (during adolescence) play a role in development of autonomy—ability to make independent decisions Cognitive changes also provide foundation for thinking about social, moral, and ethical problems Social roles and the development of autonomy As adolescents move into roles that require more responsibility and reliability (such as having a job or drivers license), raise questions about independence

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three times of autonomy

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Emotional autonomy: Aspect of autonomy that involves close relationships Behavioral autonomy: Capacity to make independent decisions and follow through on them Cognitive autonomy: Having independent values, opinions, and beliefs

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development of emotional autonomy

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By the end of adolescence, individuals are far less emotionally dependent on their parents than as children May not be first people adolescents turn to when upset Do not see parents as all-knowing and all-powerful anymore Invest a great deal of emotional energy in relationships outside of family

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idea of detachment

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Detachment: Process through which older adolescents sever emotional emotional attachments to parents and other authority figures Derived from psychoanalytic thinkers who argue that physical changes or puberty cause substantial disruption inside the family Does research on relationships between teenagers and their parents support his theory of detachment? Most individuals report becoming closer to parents in late adolescence, especially after transition to college Relationships in adolescence with parents are modified (transformed), but not broken off or severed Adolescents who can better balance autonomy and connectedness with parents are also better able to balance autonomy and intimacy within romantic relationships

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individuation

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Adolescents who develop a healthy sense of individuation and autonomy can accept responsibility for their choices and actions Two models suggested as the triggers of individuation in adolescence: Puberty: Changes in the way adolescents are viewed by parents changes the parent-child relationship Social-cognitive development (the way we think about ourselves and relationship with others): May be provoked by more sophisticated understanding of themselves and parents

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research of emotional autonomy

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Development of emotional autonomy begins in early adolescence and continues into young adulthood De-idealization: Researchers believe that knocking parents off of pedestal may be one of first aspects of emotional autonomy to develop—how is this linked to cognition? Importance of maintaining connection with parents: Adolescents who demonstrate emotional autonomy but still feel close and attached to parents are psychologically healthier than those who do not There is a healthy way of developing autonomy but still maintaining closeness with family, then developing alienation, conflict, and hostility

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emotional autonomy and parenting practices

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Healthy individuation and positive mental health are fostered by close, not distant family relationships However, adolescents whose parents use psychological control (parenting that attempts to control adolescent's emotions and opinions) leads to difficulty in developing individuation May lead to depression, anxiety, and lowered social competence Globally, adolescents whose parents provide support for growing interest in autonomy report being more satisfied with life

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emotional autonomy and parenting styles

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Independence, responsibility, and self esteem fostered by parents who are authoritative (friendly, fair, and firm), rather than authoritarian, indulgent, or indifferent. In authoritative families, guidelines are established for adolescent behavior, but they are flexible and open to discussion In authoritarian households, rules are rigidly enforced and seldom explained When this is coupled with extreme coldness and punitiveness, adolescents may rebel against parents In indulgent and indifferent families, parents do not provide sufficient guidance for adolescents; do not acquire adequate standards for behavior

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development of behavioral autonomy

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Again, this is the capacity for independent decision making Changes in the following areas for behavioral autonomy: Decision-making abilities Susceptibility to the influences of others Feelings of self-reliance

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changes in decision making abilities

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Improvements in decision-making occur during middle and late adolescence With age, adolescents become more likely to consider both the risks and benefits associated with the decisions they make Also more likely to weigh the long-term consequences of their choices, not just the immediate ones There is a decline over adolescence in the extent to which decisions are influenced by their potential to produce an immediate reward—by late adolescence rewards and costs weighed more evenly With age, individuals' ability to control impulses also improves

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changes in susceptibility to influence

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As adolescents spend more time outside the family, the opinions and advice of others become more important Studies show that in some situations, peers' opinions more influential, and in other situations, parents' opinions are more powerful Peers: More impact on the short-term, day to day, and social matters—music, style, choices in leisure activities, etc... Parents: More impact on the long-term—educational or vocational plans, values, religious beliefs, or ethics

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peer pressure

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Conformity to peers is higher during early and middle adolescence than later adolescence Conformity the highest during early adolescence, but researchers not 100% sure why One thought is there is a heightened orientation toward the peer group Do you agree that susceptibility to peer pressure lessens over adolescence? Less autonomous adolescence are also more susceptible to peer pressure and to engage in delinquent activity

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individual differences toward peer pressure

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Girls are less susceptible to peer pressure than boys Black adolescents are less susceptible to peer pressure than other racial/ethnic groups; Asian Americans are particularly susceptible to peer pressure Adolescents from single-parent households, as well as from less supportive households, are particularly susceptible to peer influence Like emotional autonomy, behavioral autonomy is associated with authoritative, rather than permissive, authoritarian, or neglectful parenting Adolescents who have less positive relationships with parents tend to be especially peer oriented, to affiliate with negative peers, and spend more time with friends unsupervised

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ethnic and cultural differences in behavioral autonomy

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Adolescents' mental health is best when their desire for autonomy matches their expectations for what their parents are willing to grant A problem facing families that migrate to a new culture is that parents and families may have different expectations regarding a timetable for autonomy Adolescents acculturate more quickly than their parents—may experience conflict regarding differences in expectations Adolescents expectations for autonomy are shaped by their perceptions of how much autonomy their friends have

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changes of feelings in self reliance

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The subjective feelings of autonomy (self-reliance) increases steadily over the adolescent years This is the opposite of being influenced by peers Which gender feels more self-reliant? Adolescents who have a stronger sense of self-reliance report higher self-esteem and fewer behavioral problems

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development of cognitive autonomy

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The development of cognitive autonomy facilitates changes in adolescents' beliefs, opinions, and values As you may recall from the chapter on cognition.... Adolescents become increasingly abstract in the way they think about moral, political, and religious issues Adolescents become more rooted in their own principles and understand that life isn't black and white Adolescents develop their own values, not just the value system passed on by parents Cognitive autonomy develops in late adolescence, unlike emotional or behavioral autonomy which develops earlier

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moral development during adolescence

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The study of moral development involves both reasoning (how individuals think about moral dilemmas) and behavior (how they behave in situations that call for moral judgments) Related to this is the study of prosocial behavior: behaviors intended to help others Theories of morality stem from the Piagetian, cognitive-developmental perspective—shift in reasoning that individuals use in moral meaning making, rather than the changes in the content of the decisions they reach Piaget's work was expanded by Lawrence Kohlberg

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Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning

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Lawrence Kohlberg (1981, 1984) Extension of Piaget's theory of cognitive development—children and adults move through sequence of stages in moral reasoning, each stage growing out of one that comes before Each stage reflects meaning making system based on internal set of assumptions (right/wrong) and how should be judged by others

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Kohlbergs Stages of moral development

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Level 1 (Preconventional): See rules as something outside of oneself Stage 1 (Punishment & Obedience Orientation): Right behavior rewarded, wrong behavior punished Stage 2 (Naïve Hedonism Orientation): What brings pleasure or serves one's own needs Level 2 (Conventional): One internalizes rules and expectations of one's family, peer group, or society Stage 3 (Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation): You are what society defines as good/bad Stage 4 (Social Order Maintaining Orientation): Need to obey laws no matter what Level 3 (Postconventional): Search for underlying reasons behind society's rules which are relative Stage 5 (Social Contract Orientation): Laws/rules important to ensure fairness, but are not perfect—may conflict with fundamental moral principles (Example: Civil Rights movement) Stage 6 (Individual Principles of Conscience Orientation): Searches for and lives in a way of commitment to deeper set of moral principles (Gandhi, MLK Jr., Mother Theresa) Postconventional thinking is more rare, particularly stage six Advanced levels of moral reasoning are more common of adolescents raised in authoritative families in which child encouraged to participate in family discussions

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Kohlberg critique

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Kohlberg only studied men, therefore did not examine gender differences Do you think gender differences exist in regards to moral reasoning? Concept of "care" (Gilligan, 1982) While Kohlberg's theory may provide some insight to how people think about the abstract and hypothetical, does little about how people reason about their day-to-day problems

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Moral Reasoning and Moral Behavior

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Individuals who are capable of reasoning at higher stages of moral thought are less likely to commit antisocial acts, less likely to cheat, and less likely to bow to pressure of others...also more likely to do what? Moral reasoning and behavior for adolescents is likely to break down when they see an issue as a personal choice, rather than an ethical dilemma—ex: drug usage Delinquency and aggression are more common among adolescents who score higher on moral disengagement: rationalizing immoral behavior as legitimate as a way of justifying own bad acts—do you know anyone who is like this, or can think of someone from a TV show or movie?

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prosocial reasoning and prosocial behavior

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Although a great deal of research on what adolescents will do if law might be broken, or rule violated, research now looking at prosocial behavior—what is that again? Overall, ways individuals think about honesty or kindness become more sophisticated during late adolescents Over course of adolescence individuals begin to devalue prosocial acts that are self-serving, and value those done out of genuine empathy for others Positive parenting helps to develop greater empathy and emotion regulation, which contribute to prosocial development Adolescents who have volunteered significant amounts of time in service activities score higher on measures of moral reasoning Individuals with higher measures of prosocial moral reasoning are more sympathetic and empathetic—what is the difference between those two? Which gender tends to score higher on measures of prosocial moral reasoning? Why do you think this is? Prosocial behavior is fairly stable over time and across different contexts

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Civic Engagement

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Broad term for involvement in political and community affairs, including staying knowledgeable about politics and current affairs, participation in political activities, and engaging in community service Only small proportion of young people can be characterized as politically engaged (globally) Service learning (learning through involvement in community services) has become more common in the US Best predictors of volunteerism: attending a school where community service is required, being actively involved in religion, having parents who are active as volunteers Individuals who volunteer their service work are more likely to continue after graduatio, than those who are "forced" into volunteering

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changes in political thinking

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Becomes more abstract As individuals progress through adolescence, more likely to judge appropriateness of having certain rights in regards to individual characteristics and context where the right is being expressed (eg: maturity to engage in free speech at demonstration) Political thinking during adolescence becomes less authoritarian and less rigid Also during late adolescence a coherent and consistent set of attitudes (an ideology) forms Political thinking and political behavior: Most important influence on political behavior tends to be social context in which adolescents come of age

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religious beliefs during adolescence

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Religious beliefs, like moral and political beliefs, become more abstract, more principled, and more independent during the adolescent years Compared to children, adolescents place greater emphasis on internal aspects of religious commitments than external manifestations—what does this mean? Adolescence is an important time of spiritual questioning, doubting, and creating During late adolescence, develop a system of personal religious beliefs, rather than solely adopting parents/family's beliefs Religious development has two main components: Religiosity: Outwards displays of religious practices—attending services (may be more important for identity development) Spirituality: The degree to which one places importance on quest for answers to questions about God and meaning of life (may be more important for cognitive autonomy) The importance of religion and religiosity declines during adolescent years Early college years when many individuals reevaluate the religious beliefs and values they grew up with Some research suggest that religious adolescents are better adjusted and less depressed than other adolescents

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Changes in cognition

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How adolescents differ from children (Keating, 2011): Better able to think about what is possible, instead of limiting to what is real Better able to think about abstract things Think more about the process of thinking itself Thinking is more multidimensional, rather than limited to a single issue See things as relative, rather than an absolute

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thinking about possibilities

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Children think about the here and now; adolescents can imagine what is possible Better at scientific problem solving Better at debating or arguing—can anticipate possible response of opponent and prepare counterargument Develop deductive reasoning: Logical reasoning in which one draws logically necessary conclusions from a general set of premises, or givens—What is an example? Similar to deductive reasoning is the emergence of hypothetical thinking, or if/then thinking (again, anticipating what is possible)

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thinking about abstract concepts

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In adolescence, appearance of more systemic, abstract thinking Seen through adolescents facility and interest in thinking about abstract concepts: interpersonal relationships (friendship), politics (democracy), religion (faith), morality (fairness and honesty)

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thinking about thinking

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Development of metacognition: the process of thinking about thinking itself Adolescents can manage their thinking better than children and are better able to explain the processes they are using Not only what you know, but how you know Adolescent egocentrism: Being able to introspect may lead to to periods of extreme self-absorption Imaginary audience: Having such a heightened self-consciousness that the adolescent imagines her/her behavior is the focus of attention—example? Personal fable: Adolescents egocentric belief that his/her experiences are unique—example?

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thinking in multiple dimensions

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Adolescents can think about things through more complicated lenses Can describe themselves in more complicated terms (eg. being shy and extroverted—and explain when and why) Can look at problem from multiple perspectives more easily Ability to use and detect sarcasm also improves during adolescence

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adolescent relativism

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Shift from thinking in absolute terms (black and white) to seeing things more relative Adolescents more likely to question others' assertions and less likely to accept "facts" as truths Sometimes adolescents belief that everything is relative can become so overwhelming that they may become extremely skeptical about many things—anyone experience this? Or know someone who did?

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theoretical perspective of adolescent thinking

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2 theoretical perspectives that have been especially important in explaining the process underlying cognitive development from childhood to adolescence Piagetian perspective (cognitive-developmental) Information-processing perspective

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Piagetian perspective

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A cognitive-developmental view: A qualitative, fixed stage-theory approach—who else have we discussed uses stages? According to Piaget, cognitive development progresses through 4 stages: Sensorimotor period: Birth to age 2 Preoperational period: Ages 2-5 Concrete operations: Ages 6 through early adolescence **Formal operations: Early adolescence through adulthood Involves the use of abstract logical reasoning Chief feature of adolescent thinking that differentiates it from thinking employed by children Transition to higher stages more likely to occur when biological readiness and increases in the complexity of environmental demands interact to stimulate more advanced thinking Earlier stages of thinking are incorporated to the next stage Not all adolescents (or all adults) develop formal-operational thinking, or employ it regularly What is a major critique of the Piagetian

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Information Processing Perspective

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Attempts to explain cognitive development in terms of growth of specific components of the thinking process (specific abilities that improve) 5 specfic areas in which improvement occurs during adolescence: Attention Memory Processing speed Organization Metacognition

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Attention

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During adolescence there are advances in an individuals ability to pay attention, with improvements in selective attention and divided attention Selective attention: The process by which we focus on one stimulus while tuning out another Divided attention: The process by which we focus on two or more stimuli at the same time Better able to concentrate and stay focused on complicated tasks than children

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memory

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During adolescence memory abilities improve, particularly in regards to working memory and long-term memory Working memory: The ability to to hold information in your mind for a short period of time, and perform an operation on that information. What is an example? Long-term memory: The ability tor recall something from a long time ago

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speed

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During adolescence the sheer speed of information processing increases

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organization

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During adolescence there are improvement in organizational strategies Adolescents are more "planful" than children More likely to approach a problem with the appropriate information-processing strategy in mind More flexible in their ability to use different strategies in different situations

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metacognition

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Adolescents knowledge of their own thinking processes improves Much better at monitoring their own learning processes

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The adolescent brain

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Brain reaches adult size by 10—changes in thinking during adolescence are not due to increases and size of the brain 15 years ago, explosion in research on adolescent brain development Techniques used to produce brain images, show that adolescents have changes in brain structure and brain function Brain structure: Physical composition of the brain (certain areas smaller or larger in adolescence than childhood) Brain function: Patterns of brain activity (adolescents may use different parts of the brain than children when performing the same task) Differences between genders in brain structure and function are very small—do not explain differences in the way they behave or think

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how the brain works

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Brain contains billions of neurons: cells that carry information by transmitting electrical charges across the brain through chemicals called neurotransmitters Neurons have projections, like tentacles, but they do not touch Miniscule gap between neurons is called the synapse (connections between neurons) Formation of some synapses are genetically programmed, others occur through what? Development of synapses continue through life as learn new skills, build new memories, etc... The more a synapse is used, the stronger the electrical pathway Synaptic pruning: Unused and unnecessary synapses start to be eliminated Those pathways we used often become more ingrained, those we do not disappears Is pruning a normal and necessary part of development? Different regions of the brain are pruned at different points of development Brain region where pruning taking place are the regions associated with the greatest changes in cognitive functioning during this stage—neural transmission becomes more efficient Myelination: Encases the projections of neurons (called white matter)—improves the efficiency and speed of information processing Increases in myelination throughout childhood and adolescence, well into adulthood

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changes in brain structure

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Better connectivity between prefrontal cortex and the limbic system leads to improvements in our ability to regulate our emotions and coordinate our thoughts and feelings Limbic system: Area of the brain that plays an important role in processing of emotional experience, social information, and reward and punishment

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changes in brain function

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Two most important changes in brain functioning involving the prefrontal cortex in adolescence lead to greater efficiency in information processing Patterns of activation within the prefrontal cortex become more focused Individuals become more likely to use multiple parts of the brain simultaneously and coordinate activity between prefrontal regions and other areas Simultaneous coordinated activity of multiple brain regions, working as a "team," called functional connectivity As individuals mature through adolescence, more distant regions become increasingly connected Maturation of functional connectivity typically completed by 22 Different type of functional change results from changes (especially in the limbic system) in ways in which brain affected by certain neurotransmitters, particularly: Dopamine: Important in brain circuits that regulate experience of reward Serotonin: Important for the experience of different moods These changes, linked to puberty, have an impact on adolescents how? The changes to the limbic system occur early in adolescence, in contrast to development in the prefrontal cortex Brain changes may provoke individuals to seek novelty, reward, and stimulation several years before complete maturation of the brain area that that regulate judgment, decision making, and impulse control

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The social brain

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Changes in the limbic system in early adolescence may explain why there is an increase in concern with what their peers think (of them) during this time Social rewards may be processed during adolescence similar to the way we process other rewards Teenagers who show stronger activation of certain brain regions when made to feel rejected, are at a greater risk for depression Brain systems governing things like impulse control, planning ahead, and balancing risk & reward still maturing during late adolescence, yet rates of adolescents' risky behavior and experimentation vary considerably around the world

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brain implications for adolescent behavior

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Brain is very malleable or "plastic"—development influenced by experience & biology, and the interaction between them Whether genes are actually expressed depends on the environment The process of synaptic pruning is influenced by experience Practicing the same task over and over again makes it easier to perform the task each time Scientists interested in whether different sorts of training programs can improve adolescents' self control

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individual differences in inteligence

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Some theorists ask: How does thinking change as individuals move into adolescence? (as a whole) Other theorists ask: How can we account for different patterns of intellectual growth within the adolescent population? (individual) Still today, most commonly used measure of intelligence is the IQ (intelligence quotient) test Score of 100 is average Many theorists argue that it's exclusive focus on "school smarts" yields a one sided picture of what it means to be an intelligent person IQ test scores remain stable over time (adolescent test scores not much different than as children) However, individuals do become smarter as they get older, and schooling during adolescence enhances performance on IQ tests

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sternberg's triarchic theory

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3 part theory of intelligence Componential intelligence: Ability to acquire, store, and process information (traditional intelligence) Experiential intelligence: Our abilities to use insight and creativity (creativity) Contextual intelligence: Our ability to think practically (street smarts)

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Gardners theory of multiple intelligence

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Seven types of intelligence: verbal, mathematical, spatial, kinesthetic, self-reflective, interpersonal, and musical

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vygotsky perspective

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Must take into account broader context in which intellectual development occurs Adolescents (and children) learn best when they encounter tasks that are neither too simple or too advanced, known as the zone of proximal development—which is what? Role of instructor to create scaffolding: Structuring a learning situation so just within reach of student (also known as plus one staging)

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Nevitt Sanford

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Challenge & Support -growth is in between

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social cognition

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: Aspect of cognition that involves thinking about other people, interpersonal relationships, and social institutions Adolescents have a more mature understanding of interpersonal relationships than children Gains in social cognition help with psychosocial advances in autonomy, intimacy, sexuality, and achievement Adolescence develop more nuanced mentalizing abilities: the ability to understand someone else's mental state Also develop more sophisticated theory of mind: understanding that others have beliefs, intentions, and knowledge that is different form one's own Improvements in mentalizing leads to changes in the way adolescents view relationships with peers and parents Transforms their beliefs about authority May begin to question their parents' authority in various contexts; also occurring when adolescents developing their own moral and value system Issues that seen as matters of right and wrong, start to seem more like matters of personal choice, beyond the bounds of parental authority

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social conventions

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The norms that govern everyday behavior in social situations Young adolescents often view social conventions as nothing but social expectations and insufficient reasons for compliance Better able to see that social "rules" we follow are not absolute and subject to debate and questioning Laws, civil liberties, and rights Adolescents become more nuanced in how they think about the relationship between the individual and society Adolescents support of "self-determination" rights (the right to make their own decisions) increases Also develop a more nuanced understanding of social norms—entitled to certain rights, but some situations when these right might need to be curtailed

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risk taking

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Adolescents take more risks than either children or adults Risk taking common during adolescence By the time they are 15, adolescents make decisions using same basic cognitive process as adults, so educating adolescents on how to make "better" decisions is unlikely to reduce risk taking How has risk taking changed for you or people you know? Some suggest that adolescents are more likely to feel invulnerable, but adolescents and adults are just as likely to subscribe to personal fables Have different values and priorities than adults When weighing the risks of decisions, may value one aspect more (like peer influence) than other aspect (health concerns), which is different for adults Are more attuned to potential rewards than adults are May be more beneficial to point out that rewards for risky behavior are smaller than trying to persuade them that the costs are large Individuals who are high in reward seeking and sensation seeking (pursuit of experiences that are novel or exciting) are more likely to engage in risky behaviors than their peers The quality of adolescents' decision making declines more than adults' when they are emotionally aroused Context also important because adolescents risk taking often occurs in situations when they are emotionally aroused—unsupervised by adults, and often encouraged by peers Spend so much time in their peer group—one reason why risk taking for teenagers is greater

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general info on problems in adolescents

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Important distinction between the normative difficulties during adolescence and serious psychosocial problems The mass media like to paint extreme pictures of adolescence The realities: Rates of occasional, and usually harmless, experimentation far exceed rates of enduring problems Need to distinguish problems that have origins/onset in adolescence and those that have roots to earlier periods of development—which is more serious? Many problems of adolescence are resolved by beginning of adulthood Problem behavior during adolescence is rarely a direct consequence of normative changes of adolescence itself

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nature of psychosocial problems

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3 broad categories of psychosocial problems in adolescence: Substance abuse: Misuse of alcohol or other drugs that causes problems in an individual's life Externalizing disorders: Psychosocial problems that are manifested in the symptoms turning outwards—aggression or delinquency Internalizing disorders: Psychosocial problems that are manifested in the symptoms turning inwards—depression or anxiety **Comorbid: When an individual has more than one problem occurring at the same time—example?

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comorbidity of externalizing problems

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Problem behavior syndrome (Jessor & Jessor, 1977): The covariation among various types of externalizing disorders result from an underlying trait of unconventionality More tolerant of deviance and very liberal in views Problem clusters: Different types of deviance have different origins, but involvement in one may lead to involvement in another (not trait based but activity/behavior based) Social control theory: Individuals who do not have strong bonds to society's institutions (family, school, work)—more likely to behave unconventionally Example of comorbity: Delinquency is often associated with truancy, defiance, sexual promiscuity, and violence—all different types of manifestations of impulse control

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comorbidity of internalizing problems

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Comorbidity of internalizing disorders tends to have subjective state of distress in common—example: depressed adolescents to experience anxiety, phobias, panic, eating disorders, suicidal thoughts, obsessive thinking, etc... Negative emotionality: Theory that various internalizing problems may be caused by underlying high levels of subjective distress Adolescents high in negative emotionality are more likely to suffer from depression, feel anxious and report other symptoms of distress

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prevalence of substance use and abuse

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Drugs of choice: 1) Alcohol, 2) Marijuana, 3) Tobacco By the time individuals are seniors in high school, 70% have tried alcohol, 46% have smoke marijuana, and 40% have smoked cigarettes Very small proportion of adolescents have serious drug dependency or use "hard" drugs Changes in substance abuse: Marijuana, which was on the decline since the 70's, rose sharply during mid 90's Alcohol use has been on a slower decline since the 80's Teen smoking, which increased in the 90's, has declined dramatically A couple of quick facts: Gender gap has narrowed in drug use—but who tends to abuse more? The chances of becoming addicted to alcohol/nicotine increases dramatically when substance use begins before the age of 15 Drugs of choice: 1) Alcohol, 2) Marijuana, 3) Tobacco By the time individuals are seniors in high school, 70% have tried alcohol, 46% have smoke marijuana, and 40% have smoked cigarettes Very small proportion of adolescents have serious drug dependency or use "hard" drugs Changes in substance abuse: Marijuana, which was on the decline since the 70's, rose sharply during mid 90's Alcohol use has been on a slower decline since the 80's Teen smoking, which increased in the 90's, has declined dramatically A couple of quick facts: Gender gap has narrowed in drug use—but who tends to abuse more? The chances of becoming addicted to alcohol/nicotine increases dramatically when substance use begins before the age of 15

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drugs and the adolescent brain

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Researchers speculate that experimentation with drugs during early adolescence, more harmful than later in development—why? Certain drugs affect the same receptors that are sensitive to dopamine (a neurotransmitter that influences or experience of pleasure); frequent drug usage during adolescence interferes with the normal maturation of brain's dopamine system Repeated exposure to drugs during heightened malleability of brain or early adolescence can affect the brain so that it is necessary to use drugs to experience normal amounts of pleasure People who begin drinking before 14 are 7x more likely to binge drink as teenagers, and 5x more likely to develop a substance abuse problem at some point in their life An area of adolescent brain that is vulnerable to harmful effects of alcohol is hippocampus (memory) and prefrontal cortex (impulsive behavior)

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more on substance abuse

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Racial/ethnic differences: White adolescents are more likely to use drugs and alcohol than other racial/ethnic groups Latino/a groups are similar to White youth in drug usage American Indian adolescents score the highest though on drug use Foreign born adolescents use alcohol/drugs at lower rate than American born Substance use progression? In general, adolescents experiment with beer and wine before cigarettes or hard liquor, which precedes marijuana, which precedes other illicit drugs. Thus, tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana are known as what??

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causes and consequences of substance use and abuse

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Important to differentiate between four groups of adolescents: 1) Frequent drug users (at least once a week), 2) Hard-drug users (drugs beyond alcohol, tobacco, marijuana), 3) Experimenters (like once a month), and 4) Abstainers Who score higher on measure of psychological adjustment? Has moderate usage of alcohol and marijuana become normative among adolescents in contemporary society? Drug and alcohol abuse during adolescence is often a symptom or prior psychological disturbance and often maladjusted as children Young people who abuse alcohol, etc...more likely to experience problems at school, suffer from psychological distress, and become involved in deviant activity

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risk factors for substance abuse

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Four sets of risk factors for substance abuse—the more factors that are present, the more likely to abuse drugs: Psychological: Individuals with certain personality characteristics (typically present before adolescence) including: anger, impulsivity, inattentiveness, and sensation seeking Familal: Individuals with distant, hostile, conflicted family relationships, rather than those that grow up in close, nurturing families Social: Individuals with substance abuse problems more likely to have friends who use and tolerate use of drugs Contextual: More likely to live in social context that makes drug use easier—what does this mean?

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protective factors for substance abuse

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Protective factors: Decrease the individual vulnerability to substance abuse Positive mental health (includes high self esteem and absence of depression) High academic achievement Engagement in school Close family relationships Involvement in religious activities Thoughts on these factors?

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externalizing problems in adolescence

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3 main categories of externalizing problems: 1) Conduct Disorder: Repetitive and persistent pattern of antisocial behavior that results in problems at school, work, or in relationship to others Very stable between childhood and adolescence Individuals who have been diagnosed with conduct disorder and who persist in antisocial behavior after age 18, may be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder: Antisocial behavior and persistent disregard for rules of society and rights of others Some individuals with antisocial personality disorders are psychopaths: Antisocial AND manipulative, superficially charming, impulsive, and indifferent to feelings of others This cluster of of characteristics referred to as callous-unemotional (CU) traits 2) Aggression: Behavior that is done intentionally to hurt someone, like physical fighting, intimation, etc... Stable over time (from childhood to adolescence), although more so in males than females 3) Juvenile Offending: Includes delinquency (crimes committed by minors and dealt with by juvenile justice system) and criminal behavior (crimes dealt with by criminal justice system) Unlike conduct disorder and aggression, which are defined in terms of behavior, juvenile offending is defined legally Violent crimes and property crimes peak during late high school years and decline during young adulthood

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developmental progression in antisocial behavior

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Antisocial behavior takes different forms: Authority conflicts: Characterized by stubbornness and rebelliousness Covert antisocial behavior: Misdeeds are not always detected by others such as lying or stealing Overt antisocial behavior: Characterized by aggression toward others Virtually all violent juveniles have a history of escalating aggressive behavior, and most chronically rebellious teenagers were oppositional children The authority conflict pathway almost always starts when?

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changes in juvenile offending over time

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Rates of juvenile crime in the US are lower than they have been in past 30 years Female adolescents are being arrested more frequently for the same things they did in the past (but weren't arrested for) Violent females have significantly more mental health problems Adolescents are 2.5 times more likely than adults to be the victim of a non-fatal violent crime Adolescents living in a single parent household in the inner city are disproportionately more likely to be the victims of violent crimes Violence and aggression among youth are linked to poverty Poor and ethnically/racially minoritized youth more likely to be arrested and treated more harshly than others if convicted—skews data Majority of teenagers who violate the law do so only once, and do not commit violent crimes

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causes of antisocial behavior

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The earlier an adolescent's "criminal career" begins, especially if before adolescence, the more likely he/she is to become a chronic offender and continue committing crimes in adulthood Two types of offenders: Life-course-persistent offenders: Individuals who begin antisocial or aggressive behavior during childhood, and continue through adolescence into adulthood More males than females Adolescence-limited offenders: Antisocial adolescents whose delinquent or violent behavior begins and ends in adolescence Causes and consequences of both types of offenders are very different

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life course persistent offenders

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Studies show that individuals whose problems with the law begin before adolescence are often: Psychologically troubled Male From low economic background From homes in which divorce has occurred From homes with hostile, inept, or neglectful parenting Important to remember that the majority of children who have histories of aggressive behavior do NOT grow up to be delinquent Children who become persistent offenders have problems with self-regulation: are more impulsive, less able to control their anger, and more likely to suffer from ADHD Current thinking is that chronically conduct-disordered adolescents are born with strong biological predispositions towards antisocial behavior—what do you think of this belief? Low levels of serotonin (diminish ability to delay gratification) An emotional system that is easily aroused and difficult to regulate A temperament that makes them hard to control Children who become chronically delinquent are more likely to score low on IQ tests and neropsychological functioning, and do poorly in school Hostile attributional bias: The tendency to interpret ambiguous interactions with others as deliberately hostile Especially aggressive children/adolescents are more likely to suffer from this tendency

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adolescence limited offenders

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Those who begin offending in adolescence do not typically show signs of serious psychological abnormality or family pathology Also do not commit serious violations of the law after adolescence The ratio of males to females for adolescence-limited offenders is much more even (1.5 to 1) However, often display more mental health, substance abuse, and financial problems in adulthood than individuals who were not delinquents as adolescents Risk factors: poor parenting and affiliation with antisocial peers Strongest predictor for delinquency is unsupervised time in unstructured activities with peers The peak years of susceptibility to peer pressure overlap with peak years of this type of delinquency

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prevention and treatment of externalizing problems

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Experts argue that to prevent chronic antisocial behavior, need to prevent disruption in early family relationships and head off early academic problems through family support and school intervention Family based prevention programs may have the strongest effects for adolescents with a genetic predisposition for problem behavior Interventions that group antisocial youth together tend to be less effective—do you remember why? For adolescence-limited offenders, they simply "age out" of criminal activity How else would you target interventions for adolescence-limited offenders? What strategies would you employ?

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internalizing problems

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Although it is common for adolescents to experience fluctuations in self-esteem, it is not the norm to feel a prolonged or intense sense of hopelessness, frustration, or sadness Depression is the most common internalizing problem in adolescence Depression: A psychological disturbance characterized by low self-esteem, decreased motivation, sadness, and difficulty in finding pleasure in formerly pleasurable activities Mood, Syndromes, and Disorder (important to differentiate) Depressed mood: feeling sad Depressive syndromes: Having multiple symptoms of depressions Depressive disorder: Having enough symptoms to be diagnosed with depression Depressed mood, depressive syndrome, and depressive disorder become more common over adolescence partly because of the increase in stressful events during adolescence One reason depression declines after late adolescence is that individuals report a decline in stress during this time period What do you think?? Do you feel less stressed now than as a teenager? Some studies indicate that there have been historical increases in the prevalence of depression and other internalized disorders, with rates increasing for each generation—thoughts?!

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sex differences in depression

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Some researchers believe the emergence of sex differences in depression is linked to social roles as adolescent girls enter the world of boy-girl relationships This role may bring heightened self-consciousness over physical appearance and increased concern over popularity Depression in girls is significantly correlated with having a poor body image Both males and females who experience more stress are more vulnerable to depression However, females are more likely than males to react to stress by turning feelings inward, while boys more likely to turn feelings outward, engage in aggressive behavior, or engage in drug/alcohol use Females also more sensitive to interpersonal relations—more likely than males to develop emotional problems as result of family discord or problems with peers

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suicide

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Up to 10% of American female high school students, and 6% of males, attempt suicide each year 2x as many adolescents think about killing themselves, known as suicidal ideation Suicidal ideation increases during early adolescence and peaks around age 15 Suicide is the leading cause of death for young people—why is this? Many adolescents do not contemplate suicide, but commit acts of non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI)—what does this mean? Some studies indicate that nearly 25% of adolescents have engaged in NSSI at least once (reasons: reduce tension, anger, anxiety; prompt feelings...) Risk factors for suicide: Having a psychiatric problem, having a history of suicide in the family, being under stress (especially in terms of sexuality or achievement), and experiencing parental rejection, family disruption, or extensive family conflict More likely to attempt suicide if one of their friends of someone in community has

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causes of depression and internalizing disorders

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Current consensus is that internalizing problems are likely to result from interaction between environmental conditions (stressful event of condition) and individual predisposition (the diathesis) Known as the diathesis-stress model The diathesis: 2 categories of predispositions GENETIC/BIOLOGICAL: Related to problematic patterns of neuroendocrine functioning (hormonal activity in the brain and nervous system)—difficult to regulate emotions Vulnerability to depression tends to run in families—linkage to genetics COGNITIVE: People with tendencies towards hopelessness, pessimism, and self-blame more likely to interpret life events in ways that leas to depression The stress: Focus on three broad sets or stressors Depression more common among adolescents from families with high conflict and low cohesions, and from divorced households Depression is more prevalent among adolescents who are unpopular, have poor peer relations, or have friends who are depressed Adolescents who are depressed report more chronic and acute stress than non-depressed adolescents Do you remember: what is the single

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treatment and prevention of internalizing problems

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Variety of approaches, most common are: Antidepressant medication: Address neuroendocrine problem, if one exists Psychotherapies (counseling) designed to help depressed adolescent understand the roots of their depression Family therapy: Changing patterns of family relationships that may be contributing to adolescent's symptoms These are especially effective if combined!

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stress and coping

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Stress effects individuals in different ways For some, stress leads to internalized disorders (typically more female) For others, leads to externalized disorders (typically more male) However, for some adolescents same sources and levels of stress do not cause psychological or physical upset Resilience: The ability of an individual to continue to function competently (or to return to normalcy) in the face of adversity or stress What makes some adolescents more prone to the effects of stress than others? A stressor is exacerbated if accompanied by additional stressor(s) Adolescents with other resources—high self-esteem, healthy ID development, strong feelings of competence, support from others—less likely to be aversely affected by stress Some adolescents have more effective coping strategies

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types of coping

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Primary control strategies: Coping strategies in which an individual attempts to change the stressor Secondary control strategies: Coping strategies in which an individual attempt to adapt to the stressor Examples? Individuals who use primary and secondary control strategies are better adjusted, less depressed, and less likely to have behavioral problems than those who react to stress through disengagement or avoidance

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Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Development from the Late Teens Through the Twenties (Arnett, 2000)

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(18-25): A period of frequent change and exploration. Distinguished by relative independence from social roles and from normative expectations. • Directions remain possible; little about future has been decided. • Most "volatile" years of life. • Emerging adulthood is culturally constructed. • Demographic changes in the timing of marriage and parenthood have made emerging adulthood typical in industrialized societies. • Great deal of demographic variability—nothing is normative demographically. • Have left adolescence, but not yet completely entered adulthood.

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Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Development from the Late Teens Through the Twenties (Arnett, 2000) - Theoretical Background- Following Major Tasks

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• Identity exploration: Trying out various life possibilities and gradually moving toward making enduring decisions. • Positive Instability: Finding one's way through trial and error. • Self-focus: Most self focused phase. • Feeling in-between: One foot in adolescence, one foot in adulthood. • Possibilities: Can make changes and explore options

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Chickering's Theory of Identity Development Background

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1. Developmental issues college students face (late adolescents) and environmental conditions that influence development 2. Built off of Erikson's stage 5: Identity vs. role confusion 3. Identity development is major task of college years 4. Seven vectors of development—spiral or steps rather than a straight line 5. Students move through different vectors at different times, can be working on more than one at same time, rework through old vectors, etc...

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What are Chickering's "seven vectors?" Be detailed. Also give an example of someone who may be moving through this vector—what are they grappling with?

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1. Developing Competence (reaching full potential)- Intellectual, Physical, and Interpersonal- student without study skills, girl who can't talk to boys 2. Managing Emotions- recognize/ accept emotions and properly express them- lashing out at people when feeling anxiety 3. Moving through Autonomy Towards Interdependence- increase emotional independence but accept that interdependence is necessary- maintaining relationship with parents and independence while in college 4. Developing Mature Interpersonal Relations- toleration and appreciation of interpersonal differences- accepting different races/ backgrounds when moving, living with a roommate 5. Establishing Identity- comfort with appearance gender heritage role and lifestyle/ personal stability- somebody struggling with their sexual identity, rejecting the identity given to you by others 6. Developing a Purpose- intentionally making choices and sticking with them when opposition arises- picking a major 7. Developing Integrity- humanizing values, personalizing values, developing congruence- forming views different from parents views

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Do you think Chickering's theory can be applied in the same way to men and women? To individuals who are not from white middle-class background? Or how about for individuals from non-heterosexual backgrounds?

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Study was mostly affluent white males from Harvard vectors are all applicable depending on situation vectors can be achieved at different times unrealistic to say they will be achieved in college or in the same manner

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Is Chickering's Theory still valid today?

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flexibility of vectors makes it universal- not outdated not just in college or certain time

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James Marcia (1966): Ego Identity Statuses

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Grounded in Erikson's stage theory, explain how adults experience and resolve crisis. Unlike Erikson's stages, these identity statuses are not linear or permanent—a person's identity status may or may not change over a life span.

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Foreclosure

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(No crisis/commitment): Individuals accept values (often from authority figures) without questioning them. Commitment to values and goals comes without crisis because authorities direct their path. Individuals in foreclosure will experience major challenge if a crisis arises due to their inability to adapt to change in the absence of authority.

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Moratorium

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(Crisis/No commitment): Individuals actively question values in order to form their identity; but their crisis comes without commitment. The vacillating occurs as they grapple between resistance and conforming to authority. Shift frequently between indecisiveness and ambivalence towards authority to creativity and exploration. Individuals remain in moratorium for the shortest amount of time, and are the "most engaging among the statuses" (Marcia, 1994, p. 75).

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Diffusion

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(No crisis/No commitment): Individuals in this sate either refuse to or are unable to commit; they "go with the flow," taking no account of consequences (positive or negative). Tend to conform, have trouble with intimacy, and sometimes lack cognitive complexity. Conformity is a reflection of their submission to external authority. Individuals who remain in diffusion also tend to score lowest of the four statuses in "healthy psychological functioning" (Josselson, 1978 p. 140).

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Identity Acheived

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(Crisis/Commitment): Achievement status comes after extensive period of crisis in which individuals makes choices that lead to strong commitments in setting goals and laying a firm foundation. Individuals in this status are likely to experience more crises, because the foundation of their identity is secure enough to explore alternatives and engage in risk taking. Rely on internal rather than external process to construct identity.

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self-authorship

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The Growth or transformation of the ways people construct meaning moving from external to internal self definition

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epistemology

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is our way of knowing (Habit of Mind/ Point of View)

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Assimilate

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a new experience (of information) is shaped to conform to existing knowledge structures

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Accommodate

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When knowledge structures actually change in response to new experiences

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Informational Learning

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tied to assimilation changes what we know- extends already established cognitive structures Brings valuable new content into the existing form of our way of knowing

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Transformational Learning

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Changes in HOW we know restructuring our cognitive structure

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Evolutionary or "Conciousness" bridge

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According to Keegan, a context for crossing over from one order of consciousness to the next, more developed order

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Kegan (1982. 1994) "Orders of Conciousness"/ "Forms of Mind"

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ORDER 0- Infants live in an objectless world- when the infant cannot see or experience something it does not exist ORDER 1- Develops in Children around the age of 2- have control of reflexes and aware of objects in their environment that are independent from themselves- attach to whatever or whoever is present at the moment ORDER 2- INSTRUMENTAL MIND- relate to others as separate and unique beings- people develop a sense of what they want and who they are- often concerned with own needs and desires ORDER 3-SOCIALIZED MIND- Thinking is more abstract- individuals are aware of their feelings/ internal processes associated with feelings- make commitments to communities of people and ideas- other people serve as a source of internal validation- how one is perceived by others is critically important ORDER 4-SELF-AUTHORING MIND- have capacity and take responsibility for their inner authority and establish their own set of values and ideologies ORDER 5-SELF-TRANSFORMING MIND- individuals see beyond themselves, others, and systems of which they are a part to understand how all people and systems interconnect

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kegan- what order to adolescents typically fall in

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ORDER 3- SOCIALIZED MIND adolescents gain greater awareness of feelings and emotions but are still more concerned with what others think and do not take responsibility for their emotions potential for 2 in early adolescents and 4 in late adolescents

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How would you help move an individual from order 3-> order 4

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Encourage them to focus on unimportant relationships and on their own ideology exposure to new things so they can form their own values not too much exposure at once

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Baxter Magoldas Theory of Self Authorship

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PHASE 1-FOLLOWING FORMULAS- Individuals followed the plan laid out for them by external authorities- gaining approval from others is critical in relationship building PHASE 2-CROSSROADS- individuals have discovered that the plans that they have followed do not necessarily work well- need to establish a new plan that better serves their needs and interests- although a general sense of unhappiness they are not at a point where they can act more autonomous because they fear the reactions of others- establishing their own beliefs rather than adopting the viewpoints of others PHASE 3-BECOMING THE AUTHOR OF ONE'S LIFE- The ability to choose ones beliefs and stand up for them in the face of conflicting external view points- individuals feel compelled to live these beliefs out- as a result of intensive self reflection individuals develop a strong self-concept PHASE 4- INTERNAL FOUNDATION- individuals are grounded in their self determined belief system in their sense of who they are and in the mutuality of their relationships- are accepting of ambiguity and open to change- life decisions are based on their internal foundations

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Who did Baxter Magolda study

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101 Miami University students - continued to study 30 narrowness of population is often critiqued- whit privileged undergrad students

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Baxter MAgolda found that epistemological development is intertwined with

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development of their sense of self and relationships with others push and pull between the two

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What are Baxter Magoldas three elements of self authorship

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develop internal voice build internal foundation securing internal commitment

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Formal operations thinking involves

answer

concrete thinking

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Peer influence is usually greater than parental influence in adolescent decisions concerning all the following EXCEPT

answer

educational plans

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Which of the following statements about parental involvement in an adolescent's life is MOST ACCURATE?

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One of the principal developmental tasks for adolescents is to become independent of their families.

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What are the 5 personality factors laid out in the 5 factor model of personality

answer

Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism Conscientiousness Openness

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True or False: A strong racial identity tends to have a negative effect on self esteem.

answer

false

question

Name Piaget's four stages in his cognitive-development view (include ages for each stage)

answer

1. Sensorimotor Period (birth to age 2) 2. Preoperational Period (2-5) 3. Concrete Operations (6-early adolescence) 4. Formal Operations (early adolescence through adulthood)

question

Describe the exosystem in Bronfenbrenner's ecological perspective. Include some aspects of your own exosystem.

answer

Settings which do not specifically contain the developing person, but influence his or her developmental possibilities and daily life. My own exosystem includes BC's policies such as disciplinary policies, alcohol and drug policies, and no-tolerance cheating policies. My parents views on trying hard and being a determined and successful child, Armonk, NY (the town I grew up in), the federal government and their policies, and my job as a lifeguard at BC.

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How are adolescents' self esteem enhanced and who should adolescents best derive their self-esteem from

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Self-esteem is enhanced by having approval of others and academic success. It is best for adolescents to derive their self-esteem from parents and/or teachers. Adolescents that derive their self esteem from peers rather than parents or teachers show more behavioral problems and poorer school achievement.

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T/F: The impact of the hormonal changes during puberty is the main factor on gender role behavior throughout adolescence.

answer

False. The impact of environmental factors on gender role is much stronger than the impact of the hormonal changes during puberty.

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True/False. Parents are a big influence in adolescents' emotional and behavioral autonomy development but do not play a role in cognitive autonomy development.

answer

False. Parents play a big role in all areas of autonomy development.

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Explain the relationship between the prefrontal cortex and the limbic system during adolescence and what affect it might have on an adolescent.

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The limbic system is the part of the brain that processes emotional experiences and is heightened during adolescents. The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain that weighs risks and rewards and controls impulses, but is not fully developed until the mid 20s, after the adolescent period. The prefrontal cortex has the ability to control the emotional impulses that the limbic system outputs, but since it is not fully developed yet, adolescents are more susceptible to giving into their emotional impulses. This often leads to risky behavior and giving into peer pressure because their limbic system cannot yet be fully monitored and controlled by the prefrontal cortex.

question

True/False: The "exosystem" part of Bronfenbrenner's model is any external settings that the developing person directly lives in or is surrounded by.

answer

False. The "exosystem" is settings that do not specifically contain the developing person, but influence "his or her developmental possibilities" and daily life, such as BC policies.

question

What are the three main areas of identity exploration discussed in Arnett's theory of emerging adulthood?

answer

1) Love 2) Work 3) Worldviews

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What are three ways in which adolescents show they think in more advanced ways than children?

answer

1.) Adolescents tend to think more about possibilities as opposed to children who only think what is real. 2.) Adolescents are better at abstract thinking than children. 3.) Adolescents are more advanced thinkers in regards to their metacognition (thinking about thinking) skills.

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True or False. According to Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Reasoning, preconventional moral reasoning is based on rewards and punishments from different courses of actions.

answer

True

question

As a freshman in college, Jade was determined to make close friends with only Koreans, since she herself is Korean and went to a predominantly Asian high school. Since she grew up around Asians, she thought this was the easiest way to make friends. Thus, during her freshman year, the only club she joined was the Korean Students Association. However, at the end of freshman year, Jade felt like she was stuck in the "Asian Bubble" and wanted to diversify her friend groups. Therefore during sophomore year, she decided to branch off and she joined the Black and Latino Student Union. Through this club, Jade has made many meaningful friendships with people from different backgrounds and cultures. Given this scenario, which one of Chickering's seven vectors is Jade demonstrating? and how so?

answer

Vector 1- Developing mature interpersonal relationships

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Which of the following is the understanding that other people have beliefs, intentions and knowledge that is different from one's own?

answer

Theory of Mind

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What part of the brain experiences the biggest changes during adolescence? What are the main functions of the this part of the brain?

answer

pre-frontal cortex, which includes thinking ahead, planning, weighing risks and rewards, and controlling impulse

question

What is the difference between Detachment and Individuation in terms of Autonomy?

answer

Detachment includes severing emotional detachment, whereas Individuation means that relationships are only modified

question

What do inventionists' theorists argue about adolescence? What is their evidence?

answer

Inventionists' argue that the period of adolescence is socially constructed. Before the mid-19th Century and the Industrial Revolution, there was no time in between childhood and adulthood. Following the Industrial Revolution, less labor was needed so children spent more time in school and with their peers. This lengthened education provided the space for what we now term adolescence. However, inventionists' would uphold their argument because adolescence has evolved greatly from the 1960s. Finishing school, moving out from under your parent's roof, and getting married are all occurring much later today, lengthening adolescence as a result of current societal standards.

question

True or False: Gender-role behavior changes that occur during adolescence are for the most part a result of the hormonal changes that occur during puberty.

answer

False: the environmental factors have a much stronger impact.

question

A Boston College student who has made an appointment with the Career Center to explore possible job opportunities and has set up multiple job interviews is experiencing which of Chickering's seven vectors?

answer

Developing Purpose. By perusing a vocation and setting up interviews, this student is setting goals for himself and making commitments.

question

True or false: The main difference between Piaget's and Erikson's theories of development is that Piaget utilized a stage theory while Erikson viewed development as gradual and continuous.

answer

False. Both Piaget and Erikson utilized a stage theory. The main difference between them is that Piaget's theory ended development in adolescence, while Erikson viewed development as a lifelong process.

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