psych test 3: gender development !! – Flashcards
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sex (biological basis) gender (social basis)
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which word to use? (NOT ON STUDY GUIDE)
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shopping math dressing up ect.... more on powerpoint
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gender differences (NOT ON STUDY GUIDE)
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-active -adventurous -aggressice -ambitous -competitive -cominant -indpendent -likes math and science -makes decisions easily -mechanical -not easily influenced -self-confident
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masculine attributes (gender stereotypes) (NOT ON STUDY GUIDE)
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-aware of others' feelings -considerate -creative -cries easily -devotes self to others -emotional -excitable in a major crisis -expresses tender feelings -feelings easily hurt -gentle -likes children -neat
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female attributes (gender stereotypes) (NOT ON STUDY GUIDE)
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how do you come to identigy yourself as a boy or a girl
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the main question
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basic assumption: young children learn how to act like a boy or a girl (kids learn to identify themselves as a boy or girl) two ways.. 1. observational learning (parents, peers, media- tv, video games, movies) 2. direct teaching (via systematic differences in how parents treat sons and daughters)
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social learning theories (theories of gender development)
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what kids mostly see are traditional gender typed models: division of labor in workforce and home
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observational learning (social learning theories-processes)
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-more time around same-gender (observe behavior of own gender more) -more arrention to same-gender models (remember more about same gender models and imitate same-gender models more)
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factors influencing observational learning (social learning theories)
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1. kids raised in less conventional families tend to be less strongly sex-typed 2. boys influenced by # and proportion of boys playing with toys
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evidence for observational learning (social learning theories)
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-systematic differences in how parents treat boys and girls reward gender-appropriate behavior, punish (sometimes) gender-inappropriate behavior -differential treatment by parents but, same treatment too (amoint of affection, amount of time interacting, responsiveness, degree of restriction on activites)
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direct teaching- of gender roles (social learning theories-processes)
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-despite the differences that do exist, differences not all due to differential socialization -instead, kids born with gender-appropriate preferences (top preferences by 12-18 months!!) -parental reinforcement may be response to pre-existing preferences
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social learning theories wrap-up
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-kids construct knowledge of gender social learning theories assume that kids know what gender they are... how else would they know which gender to imitate?
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social cognitive theories (theories of gender development)
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-basic claim: children actively construct knowledge of gender in same way they construct other knowledge about the world (influence of piaget) -3 stages: 1. gender identity 2. gender stability 3. gender constancy
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kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory (social cognitive theories)
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(2-3 years) -learn you are member of gender category will say, "im a girl" or "im a boy" but dont know gender is permanent (eg girl --> father) awareness of one's own gender
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gender identity (kohlberg's cognitive development theory)
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(3 to 4 years) - gender stable over time ('im a girl and ill always be a girl") but not clear gender independent of superficial appearances -awareness of that gender is stable over time
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gender stability (kohlberg's cognitive development theory)
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(around 5 to 7 years) -learn gender is consistant across situations -im a girl and nothing i can do will change it related to success on conservation tasks? -the realization that gender is invariant despire superficial changes in a person's appearance or behavior
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gender constancy (kohlberg's cognitive development theory)
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-once gender consistancy achieved can seek out same-gender models and learn appropriate behavior -unlike social learning theories, imitation of same sex models is result of cognitive change
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(kohlberg's cognitive development theory) wrap-up
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1. gender-appropriate preferences long before kids reach gender constancy or begin attending to same-gender models 2. other factors influence progress through stages (knowing genital diffrerences between sexes)
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problems with this theory (kohlberg's cognitive development theory)
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how do kids develop gender schemas (what starts first?) 1. motivation to learn gender-appropriate behavior begins when they can identify own gender (about 3 years) 2. concept of gender develops through construction and elaboration of "gender schemas" (memory of all you know about the 2 genders and schemas are dynamic)
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gender schema theory (social cognitive theories)
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1. in group/out group - others "same as me" or not -naturally begin attending more to same-gender individuals, forming a details "own-sex" schema evidence: -prefer novel, netural objects if told "for my sex" -explore toys more and remember more about them if told "for my sex"
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gender schemas start simple (gender schema theory)
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motivation towards gender-consistent behavior means more knowledge of own gender at expense of learning about other gender -the process through which children's biases to behave in accord with their gender identity is strengthened by their greater attention to and involvment with entities and activities deemed appropriate to their gender
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"gender self-socialization" (gender schema theory)
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schemas are a way to remember info about the genders -more attention to your own gender --> own-gender schema more elaborate than other-gender schema which explains why: - kids remember more about waht they see same-sex individuals do -kids more likely to encode events accurately when they involve gender-consistent behavior (may even distort events with gender-inconsistent behavior)
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schemas (gender schema theory)
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social learning theory (processes: reward/punishment of gender appropriate behavior by adults and peers; observation/imitation of same-gender models- outcome: gender-typed behavior) cognitive developmental theory (Kohlberg) (processes: achieve gender constancy at 5-7 years, then selectively attend to same-gender models and imitate gender-appropraite behavior- outcome: gender typed behavior) gender schema theory (processes: society emphazies differences between gender; intrinsic motivation to conform to society's standards; imitate same gender models- outcome: gender-typed behavior)
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comparing theories of gender development (NOT ON STUDY GUIDE)
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page 358-369
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ecological theories (theories of gender development)
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-the most encompassing model of the general context of development -the environment as "as set of nested structures, each inside the next, like a set of russian dolls" -every level has an impact on that child's development levels of environment: -microsystem -mesosystem -exosystem -macrosystem -chronosystem
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bioecological model- bronfenbrenner's ecological theory(theories of gender development)
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-immediate enviornments Home: bedrooms match gender school: feminine bias? (reward "feminine" (obedient) and discourage "masculine" (assertive) behavior) but boys still dominate classrooms
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micro system (bioecological model- ecological theories)
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-interactions between microsystems -parent/teacher expectations (both believe that girls are better at reading and boys are better at math- which is not necessarliy true!) same message at home and school- more likely to believe its true!
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mesosystem (bioecological model- ecological theories)
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-indirectly affect development -children observe uneven distributon of jobs in society -of course, this seems to be changing
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exosystem (bioecological model- ecological theories)
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-general cultural plays crucial role -degree that each gender is valued majority of cultures, males valued > females: female infanticide; in US, most people hope first child is a boy
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macrosystem (bioecological model- ecological theories)
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- historical time period -dramatic changes in western society last few decades (career options expanded for females and females valued more then before)
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chronosystem (bioecological model- ecological theories)
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why do males and females differ? evolutionary view assumes... - differences between males and females selected because of adaptive advantage (styles of play- 'rough and tumble' vs 'play parenting'; mate selection)
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evolutionary psychology (NOT ON STUDY GUIDE)
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gender-typed behavior reflects differential selection pressures on males and females (eg rough and tumble play as training for fighting and hunting; pretend mothering as preparation for role as mother), also evolutionary theory as an explanation for different mating strategies of males and females
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evolutionary theory
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according to evolutionary psychology, different minimum investment in offspring
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gender differences in mating selection (evolutionary psychology)
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- the larger sex cell - 30 lb of nutrients - greatly impaired mobility and independence - years of nursing and child rearing (during which she and the child are especially vulnerable to hunger, protein deficiency, prediction...
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minimum parental investment- what must the female contribute? (evolutionary psychology)
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- 5 minutes of copulation - 1 tsp of semen
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minimum parental investment- what must the male contribute (evolutionary psychology)
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large minimum investment= choosy when picking partner small minimum investment= goal is to mate with as many individuals as possible
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minimum investment determines optimal mating strategy
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1. male competition 2. female choosiness
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two consequences (evolutionary psychology)
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one male can easliy fertilize several females, forcing other males to go mateless
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male competition consequence (evolutionary psychology)
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-females can get pregnant (and pass on their genes) only so fast -they need support to raise children- leads to females being more discriminating
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female choosiness (evolutionary psychology)
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for males- more sexual partners = more likely to pass on genes for females- not so. more interested in selecting a mate that will stick around and help raise the kids
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this predicts 'optimal mating' strategies (evolutionary psychology)
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-nearly impossible to test- we dont reallly know what the environment was like when humans were evolving -'just so' stories- it's easy to come with post-hoc explanataions for why we are the way we are
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the problem with evolutionary explanataions (evolutionary psychology) (NOT ON STUDY GUIDE)
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-integrates social learning, social cognitive and evoultionary theories to account for Gender Segregation -combines evolution, bilogy, learning, and cognitive theories
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maccoby's theory of gender segregation (theories of social cognition)
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strong tendency to interact with same-sex and avoid other sex -kids segregate themselves and it is natural
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gender segregation (maccoby's theory of fender segregation -theories of social cognition)
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-toddlers in preschools prefer same-sex playmates -segregation increases over time and peaks around 8-11 years -declines slowly, starting in adolescence
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gender segregation is natural (maccoby's theory of fender segregation -theories of social cognition)
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why? 1. universal- evident in studied in mexico, africa, india, philipines, and US 2. between ages 6 and 10- children initated 5times as many social acts with same-sex partners peers than other-sex peers 3. seperate themselves = "self-socialization"- programs trying to increase cross-sex play fail
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more facts (maccoby's theory of fender segregation -theories of social cognition)
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girls and boys interact differently boys= rough and tuble play, establish dominance, direct confrontation, etc girls= establish pos social relations, self-disclosure, avoid open conflict, indirect hostility
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according to maccoby (maccoby's theory of fender segregation -theories of social cognition)
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- evolution: monkeys show differences in play style - physiological causes: androgen exposure(androgens exposure in female monkeys and humans= play styles more like males) - cognitive factors: knowledge of one's own gender - socialisation: peers make fun of cross-gender interactions and parents reinforce gender-consistent interaction styles
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ok, so why do they interact differently (maccoby's theory of fender segregation)
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- evolutionary adaptations promoted survival of species throughout evolutionary history - children "self-socialize" into gender roles - parents reinforce gender-consistent behavior/interactions - society provides examples of differences, draws boundaries of gender-appropriate behavior -more time around same sex promotes more learning and therefore knowledge about own sex -socilization (gender appropritae behavior rewarded by peers, gender inappropriate behavior is punished
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summary of theories of gender development
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course themes: 1. nature and nurutre- always interacting 2. children actively influence their own development 3. development is both continuous and discontinuous 4. mechanisms of developmental change 5. sociocultural context shapres development 6. how do children become so different from one another? 7. developmental research can improve children's lives
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summary and wrap-up of child development- themes of child development
