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the study of the mind

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Psychology

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Philosophy and Biology

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Roots of psychology

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how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

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neuroscience

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we learn by imitating others.

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observational learning

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how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

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cognitive

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how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

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psychodynamic

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how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

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social

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how the natural selection of traits promoted the survival of genes, how much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences

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evolutionary/behavior genetics

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licensed medical doctors who specialize in psychological problems. can prescribe meds and treat causes of psych disorders with drug therapy.

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psychiatrists

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builds on psychology's knowledge base. discoveries such as pert and solomon snyder's opiate receptor in the brain

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Basic research

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solves practical problems such as how to boost moral in the work place or how to design a drug rehab program for opiate addicts.

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applied research

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plato believed that character and intelligence are largely inherited (nature-genetics) and Aristotle believed that there is nothing in the mind tat does not come from the external world (nurture-environment)

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nature/nurture

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finding that something has happened makes it seem inevitable, a tendency that we call this

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hindsight bias

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Psychological theories organize observations and imply predictive hypotheses. After constructing precise operational definitions of their procedures, researchers test their hypotheses, validate, and refine the theory, and, sometimes, suggest practical applications

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value of a psychological theory

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it examines one individual in depth of hopes of revealing things true of us all. Ex: much of our early knowledge about the brain came from case studies of individuals who suffered a particular impairment after damage to a certain brain region

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case study

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the survey method looks at many cases in less depth. A survey asks people to report their behavior or opinions. Questions about everything from sexual practice to political opinions are put to the public

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survey

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a third descriptive method records behavior in natural environments. These observations range from watching chimpanzee societies in the jungle, to unobtrusively videotaping (and later systemically analyzing) parent-child interactions in different cultures, to recording racial differences in students' self-seating patterns in the lunchroom at school

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naturalistic observation

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the group that is uninformed about what treatment, if any, they are receiving

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blind

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this is when neither the participants nor the research assistants collecting the data will know which group is receiving the treatment

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double blind

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effect experimentation results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent. It is well documented to reduce pain, depression, an anxiety. To know how effective a therapy really is, researchers must control for a possible placebo effect.

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placebo

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the group that does not receive the treatment. Contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

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control group

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the group that receives the treatment and is exposed to the treatment

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treatment group

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the outcome factor. The variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable (what is measured)

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dependent variable

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the experimental factor that is manipulated. the variable whose effect is being studied (what is manipulated)

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independent variable

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the arithmetic average - the total sum of all the scores, divided by the number of scores

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mean

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the midpoint - the 50th percentile. If you arrange all the scores in order from highest to lowest, half will be above the median and half will be below it

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median

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the simplest measure. The most frequently occurring score of scores

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mode

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the gap between the highest and lowest scores - provides only a crude estimate of variation

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range

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the more useful standard for measuring how much scores deviate from one another. It better gauges whether scores are packed together or dispersed, because it uses information from each score.

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standard deviation

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i. Top-and-mid level managers, executives, administrators ii. Sales occupations, including retail iii. Social workers

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top 3 occupations

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studies the relationship between learning and our physical and social environments. They study the psychological processes involved in learning and develop strategies for enhancing the learning process. You might work in a university or in a psychology department

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education psychologist

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involved in the assessment of and intervention for children in educational settings. They diagnose and treat cognitive, social, and emotional problems that may negatively influence children's learning or overall functioning at school. You would make recommendations to improve student learning, and you would work in an academic setting, a federal or state government agency, a child guidance center, or a behavioral research laboratory.

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school psychologist

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Describe, Understand, Predict, Influence DUPI!!!!!

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goals of psychology

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a scholar/philosopher who pursued knowledge for its own sake and studied life and living things. father was a physician. collected and dissected plants and animals. studied reproduction and the every day actions of living people as they reasoned, remembered, learned, and attempted to persuade one another. used "psyche" to refer to the essence of life, which he believed escaped as the last dying breath was exhaled. OBSERVER

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Aristotle

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trained Aristotle but disagreed with Aristotle.believed that character and intelligence are largely inherited.

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Plato

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(dualist) the soul is not the mind, it is sepearte.

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Descartes

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taught Plato

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socrates

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same as Decarte-the soul is separate

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dualists

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(reductionist)-it is only the brain...is a thought is an action potential down the axon of a nerve cell, a feelings is the release of a neurotransmitter (chemical) in the brain, a perception is the upswing of a brain wave.

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monists

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studied different species of animal life he encountered while sailing. proposed theory of evolution and natural selection in Origin of species. believed physical characteristic evolved in a species because it serves some purpose. implied that different species share a common evolutionary ancestry and share characteristics.

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Charles Darwin

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had a laboratory and offered first course on psychology. believed capabilities of human mind developed because it serves some survival purpose. 'Principles of Psychology' that emphasized the evolutionary significance of consciousness. sought to explain the functions of consciousness and of the mind in helping us to adapt to the demands of life. interested in free will and emotions. experienced a life long struggle with depression.

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William James

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applied the scientific method to the study of human consciousness. established FIRST PSYCH LAB for controlled introspective study of human consciousness. his studant, edward titchener coined the term structuralism. example of structure of consciousness study: apple, describe what it tastes like.

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willhelm Wundt

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studied digestion in dogs. Pavlovian conditioning called 'classical conditioning' and founded the subspecialty of Learning. ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

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Ivan Pavlov

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felt the study of psychology should be restricted to only what could be observed ad believed he could condition any person to become anything. Little Albert experiment

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John B. Watson

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invented Skinner box for studying effects of reinforcement on behavior. explored operant conditioning

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B.F. Skinner

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Gestalt psychology: the whole. different from the some of parts. our perception changes depending on the arrangement of the parts. triangles and number illustration

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Wertheimer

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experiments in memory. published On Memory which he reported his work on memory and forgetting. himself as subject. he concludes that forgetting is really rapid. but the time it took to relearn is short. this time saved on relearning is called the Ebbinghaus Savings Effect.

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Herman Ebbinghaus

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a physician who treated diseases of the nervous system. he thinks dreams are disguised motivations and conflicts. published Interpretation of Dreams. PSYCHOANALYSIS

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Sigmund Freud

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first stained and identified the whole neuron and postulated the synapse (space that separates neuron)

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Ramon Y Cajal

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discovered first neurotransmitter (Acetylcholin), the chemicals that convey one nerves message to the next.

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Otto Lowei

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believed that emotions were found in El Grande Lobe Limbic and discovered the speech production area located in the left frontal lobe.

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Pierre Paul Broca

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external social influences on behavior-how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

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Social psychology

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Heider, 1958. tendency to give a casual explanation for someone's behavior, crediting either the situation or person's disposition.

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attribution theory

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temperament (Nature) the explanation of individual behavior as a result caused by internal characteristics that reside within the individual. ex. teacher may wonder whether a child's hostility reflects aggressive personality

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dispositional variable

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environment (Nurture) outside influences that stem from the environment or culture in which that individual is found. ex. teacher may wonder whether a child's hostility reflects abuse

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situational variable

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attributing the cause of behavior to personal disposition rather than situation. Underestimating the influence of context/situation. overestimate the impact of personal disposition and underestimate impact of situation. ex. juliette seldom talks in class and over coffee, jack stalks nonstop but is quiet in class and at a party you can't recognize the quitet juliette cause she is loud

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Fundamental attribution error

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They don't predict behavior very well, may under certain circumstances. Outside influences are minimal, attitude is specific to the behavior, we are made aware of our attitude.

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when attitudes predict behavior

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when fulfilling a role, agreeing to a small request makes it more likely that you will comply with a larger one. (foot in the door phenomenon is an example)

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when behavior predicts attitudes

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tendency for people who have first agreed to a small task and then later comply with large one. example: let you borrow pencil. then homework. then old tests.

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foot in the door phenomenon

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a set of explanations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. when you adopt a new role-wife-you follow the social prescriptions.

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Role playing

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making a mock prison and giving 12 men the role of prison guards and the other 12 the role of prisoners. the experiment showed how the individual personalities of people could be swamped when they were given positions of authority.

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Zimbardo's prison experiment

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Baghdad Central Prison. U.S. television news-magazine 60 Minutes reported on a story from the magazine The New Yorker, which recounted US-sanctioned torture and humiliation of Iraqi detainees by US soldiers and contracted civilians. The story included photographs' depicting the abuse of prisoners. The events created a substantial political scandal within the US and other coalition countries.

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Abu Graib Prison

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the theory that we act to reduce discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. making our attitudes and behaviors match. conformity to self.

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cognitive dissonance theory

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adjusting one's behavior/thinking to coincide with group standard. example Candid camera!

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Conformity

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unconsciously mimicking others' expressions, postures, and voice tones helps us feel what they are feeling. i. People are natural mimics ii. Why we are happy around happy people - mood linkage

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Chameleon effect

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standard line...comparison..if everyone saying obvious line that's wrong, the person will say same thing. 37/50 said the same even though the answer was obvioiusly not the right one.

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Asch's experiment

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ii. The group as at least three people iii. The group is unanimous (the dissent of just one other person greatly increases social courage) iv. One admires the group's status and attractiveness v. One has made no prior commitment to any response vi. Others in the group observe one's behavior vii. One's culture strongly encourages respect for social standards

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things that strengthen conformity

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influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval i. We are sensitive to social norms because the price we pay for being different may be severe

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normative social influence

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influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality i. "Those who never retract their opinions love themselves more than they love truth."

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informational social influence

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effect of punishment on learning. shock level higher every time answer was wrong. concluded that ordinary people, doing their jobs, without an particular hostility on their parts, can become agents in terrible distruction process. this man wanted to know more about the Nazi way of thinking during the Holocaust.

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Milgram Experiment

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Milgram experiment, the percent of people who went all the way through with the highest shock in the experiment.

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63%

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close at hand/authority figure, supported by prestigious institution, victim at a distance or depersonalized, no role models for defiance

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influencers of compliance

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stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

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social facilitation

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the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

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social loafing

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the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

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deindividuation

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the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

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group polarization

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the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

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groupthink

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the power of the situation

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social control

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the power of the individual

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personal control

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an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory actions

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prejudice

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i. In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. ii. The ability to distinguish one stimuli from another, responding only to the CS

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discrimination

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biological influences i. Testosterone - the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and female have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

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aggression

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the principle that frustration-the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal-creates anger, which can generate aggression (as frustration increases, aggression increases)

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frustration aggression principle

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the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present

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by-stander effect

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mere exposure effect-the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

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attraction

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1. proximity 2. physical attractiveness 3. similarity

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three factors in attraction

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1. temporary passionate love-an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at beginning of relationship. 2. more enduring companionate love-the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

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types of love

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the study of knowledge

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epistemology

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ideas and beliefs about learning and knowledge

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epistemological beliefs

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rsing isolated facts over and over again (memorization) Rehearsal items are remembered better. (Atkinson & Shiffrin) Rehearsal leads to storage in long-term memory only when the learner associates new information with existing knowledge (Craik, Watkins, Klatky)

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rote learning

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Associating new information or material with existing knowledge (relating new information to what you already know) Ex: America the beautiful - young boy says: "Oh beautiful for "spaceship skies"

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meaningful learning

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i. Is actively and consciously engaged 1. Actively attends to and thinks about the new information ii. Is eager to acquire mastery of the subject iii. Exerts considerable effort iv. Uses a variety of learning and self-regulatory strategies v. Believes that 1. Knowledge on a topic continues to evolve 2. Learning something well takes time, effort, and perseverance

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intentional learner characteristics

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knowing if you know and thinking about thinking...and learning and studying

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metacognition

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using prior knowledge to interpret and expand upon new material i. Understand, abstract interpret and apply

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elaboration

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imposing structure when it doesn't exist Different types: 1. Outline 2. Graphic representation 3. Chart, map, flow chart, pie diagram, matrix 4. Concept map - maps out overall organization and interrelationships

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organization

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Maps out overall organization and interrelationships

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concept map

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Facilitates encoding (ever lose your list?) and Creates concrete external storage

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benefits of note taking

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i. Summarize main ideas and include supporting details ii. Look for material that fits the purpose or goals of the chapter iii. Rewrite, reorganize, elaborate iv. Notice what is important: what the teacher repeats, writes on the board, or has BOLDED in the powerpoint

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suggestions for beneficial note taking

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1. Things the teacher repeats 2. Boldface words, italicized words, shadowed words, etc. 3. Chapter headings 4. Underline or highlighted

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how to identify what info is important

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i. Identify what's important ii. State main ideas (explicit or implicit) iii. Organize critical elements into a cohesive whole iv. Put in your own words and condense v. Identify categories or headings to label groups of information vi. Start with a main idea and find supporting details

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summarizing

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i. Can you draw a picture, chart or diagram ii. Self questioning - turn chapter heading into questions, then answer them iii. State the main idea - explain why that occurred and how are concepts similar and different? What are strengths and weaknesses? How is it related to what was studied earlier? iv. Predicting: can you guess what the next paragraph will be about after finishing the one you are reading now? Read to see if you were right

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comprehension monitoring

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catchy memory aids i. Impose structure or organization ii. Relate info to what the learner already knows iii. Build retrieval cues

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mnemonics

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i. The view that psychology should be an (1) objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with the first but now the second. ii. The power of the environment/experience to shape behavior iii. Studied only behavior that can be observed

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behaviorism

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as a "behavorist" would define: a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience that allows us to adapt to our environment. There are three types of learning; classical, operant, and observational

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learning

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It shapes our thought and language, our motivations and emotions, our personalities and attitudes.

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why learning is important

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The process of learning associations

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conditioning

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Ivan Pavlov led an experiment for this in which he figured out salivation in dogs. He defined this type, aka classical conditioning. Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Salivating in response to meat powder and later salivating in response to a tone. iii. We learn associations between events. We anticipate important events. The stimulus happens first and then the behavior follow.

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associative learning

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B.F. Skinner worked and termed this. ii. Organisms associate their own actions with consequences. Actions followed by reinforcers increase; those followed by punishers decrease. Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli is called operant behavior. iii. We learn by doing. The behavior happens first: we operate on our environment. Then we are rewarded or punished. We engage in behaviors that are rewarded and we avoid behaviors that are punished. iv. Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli is called operant behavior.

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operant conditioning

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i. Albert Bandura is associated with this ii. We learn by observing, then imitating others (learn by watching). iii. Modeling: someone demonstrates the desired behavior and then someone else imitates the behavior after observing it.

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observational learning

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i. Unconditioned stimulus ii. The stimulus that naturally triggers a response iii. Example: in Pavlov's, whenever the dog see's or taste the food, he salivates

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UCS

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i. Unconditioned response ii. Unlearned, natural response iii. Example: In Pavlov's, whenever the dog salivated in reflex to food

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UCR

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i. Conditioned stimulus ii. The previously neutral stimulus that becomes a learned trigger for the response iii. Example: In Pavlov's, the ticking, the light, music box, or bell sounds whenever they brought out food to the dog

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CS

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i. Conditioned Response ii. Learned response to a condition stimulus iii. Example: In Pavlov's whenever salivated in response to the ticking, light, music box, or bell.

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CR

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i. The diminishing of a conditioned response, occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is not longer reinforced ii. 'Lessening of a condition response' iii. Classical - occurs when UCS (unconditioned stimulus) no longer pairs with the CS (conditioned stimulus) iv. Operant - occurs when behavior is no longer reinforced

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extinction

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i. The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. ii. Reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period

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spontaneous recovery

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i. The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for a stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses ii. Stimuli that are similar to the CS (conditioned stimulus) will evoke some level of the CR (conditioned response)

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generalization

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i. An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. ii. Reinforcing successive approximations of the behavior

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shaping

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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. Rapid acquisition. Used when first learning new behavior

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction that does continuous reinforcement. Reinforcing only some responses. Best if unpredictable. Use to maintain behavior (prevents extinction).

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partial reinforcement

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provide reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses

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variable-ratio schedules

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reinforce the first response after a fixed time period

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Fixed-interval schedules

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reinforce behavior after a set number of responses

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Fixed-ratio schedules

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reinforce the first response after varying time intervals

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Variable-interval schedules

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years pavlov devoted to his experiments on the digestive system, on learning.

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20 years

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recognition pavlov got for his early work

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Nobel Peace Prize

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i. Also known as an operant chamber ii. Designed by Skinner to study the effects of reinforcement on behavior iii. Inside the box, the rate presses a bar for a food reward. Outside, a measuring device records the animal's accumulated responses.

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skinner box

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increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforce is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. 1. Increases the behavior 2. Application of reward

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positive reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforce is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. 1. Increase behavior 2. Removal of something aversive

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negative reinforcement

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i. An event that decreases the behavior that it follows ii. Decreases the preceding response iii. Decreases the behavior iv. Decreases rate of responding

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punishment

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Pavlov, Watson, Skinner, Bandura, and Thorndike

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Behaviorists

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i. We learn some things easier than others ii. Principle: biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive

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biological predisposition

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i. Studied biological predisposition ii. He had water in certain conditions (water in bright light, water in noisy setting, and water than was tasty) 1. He injected rats with something that made them sick after drinking all the different types of waters. 2. The next day the rats didn't drink the tasty water but still drank the bright and noisy water. iii. His study counteracted the idea of equipotent 1. Equipotent: applies across all behaviors. That behaviors are the same in all situations, in all organisms.

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John Garcia

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i. Learning by observing others ii. We learn by observing, then imitating others (learn by watching)

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Observational learning

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i. A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment ii. Example: feeling pressured to finish reading or studying because your grade for this class depends on it

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extrinsic motivation

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i. A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake ii. Example: Learning this classes course material because it is interesting and it makes you feel more competent with no grade at stake

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intrinsic motivation

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i. Studied observational learning (we learn by observing then imitating others) ii. Experimented on observational learning and modeling (demonstrating the behavior and then imitating that behavior) iii. BOBO doll experiment

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Albert Bandura

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this lady beats up on a BOBO doll and then a kid is placed in a room alone with the doll and other toys and the kid beats up on the BOBO doll too.

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Bobo doll experiment

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i. Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it ii. Learning that occurs but is not displayed until it has been official to do so 1. Animals learn from experience even without rewards

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latent learning

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i. A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it ii. Learning that occurs without consequences iii. Mental representations of the world around you

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cognitive maps

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the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

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Memory

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1. Encoding: getting information into our brain 2. Storage: retain information over time 3. Retrieval : getting information back out

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3 steps in information processing

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views memories as emerging from interconnected neural networks i. Information-processing model of memory

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connectionism

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i. Visual encoding: the encoding of picture images ii. Acoustic encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words iii. Semantic encoding: the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

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3 types of encoding

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We learn the following through ____processing: i. Space - encode places on a page where certain material is located ii. Time - note the sequence of the day's events iii. Frequency - keep track of how many times things happen iv. Well-learned information - see words on side of truck (example) and can't help but register their meanings

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automatic

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the immediate, very brief recording information in the memory system.

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sensory

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1. Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. 2. Short term memory is limited in duration of time but also capacity, typically you can hold about seven bits of information a. Magical number seven, plus or minus two

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short term

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1. The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. 2. Essentially our long term memories is limitless

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long term

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stuff that you realize that you are remembering such as a first kiss

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conscious memory

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cannot consciously recognize faces but whose physiological responses to familiar faces reveals an unconscious recognition 1. Can find the bathroom, but can't tell you where it's at

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unconscious recognition

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memory for how to do things. 1. From tying shoes, to flying and airplane, to reading

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procedural memory

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1. Retention independent of conscious recollection 2. Type of long term memory 3. Nondeclarative memory 4. Without conscious recall 5. Processed by other brain areas, including cerebellum - the brain region extending out from the rear of the brainstem, plays a key role in forming and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning 6. Skills - motor and cognitive 7. Classical conditioning

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implicit memory

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1. Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" 2. Type of long term memory 3. Declarative memory 4. With conscious recall 5. Processed in hippocampus - neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage 6. Facts - general knowledge 7. Personally experience events 8. You can lose this and still lay down memories for skills and conditioned associations

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explicit memory

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has an important role in the formation of new memories about experienced events (episodic or autobiographical memory). Part of this role is involvement in the detection of novel events, places and stimuli. Clive had a viral infection that damaged this.

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Hippocampus

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involved in the coordination of voluntary motor movement, balance and equilibrium and muscle tone. HM kept this and was able to drive car because of the skills in his body.

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Cerebellum

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the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage i. Memory strategy

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rehearsal

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i. Even after we learn material, it is the additional rehearsal ii. This increases retention

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over learning

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i. The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice ii. We retain information better when our rehearsal is distributed over time

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spacing effect

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i. Repeated quizzing of previously studied material ii. "testing is a powerful means of improving learning, not just assessing it"

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testing effect

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organizing items into familiar, manageable units or chunks; often occurs automatically i. Is considered a mnemonic technique

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chunking

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i. Process information in hierarchies composed of a few broad concepts divided and subdivided into narrower concepts and facts. 1. Textbooks divide you into chapter, which can divide into topics, which can be divided into sub topics

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hierarchies

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i. Giving more as much information on one single term in order to better recall it later ii. The most basic of all memory techniques. iii. The more meaning your are able to give to the thing-to-be-remembered, the more successful you will be in recalling it later. iv. It has been shown that it is more effective to emphasize higher-levels of meaning.

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elaboration

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a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

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iconic memory

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a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

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echoic memory

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l. Long-term potentiation. an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory. i. Form of brain storage ii. Involves learning and remembering associations

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LTP

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memories are held in storage by a web of associating, each piece of information interconnected with others i. When you encode into memory a target piece of information, such as the name of the person sitting next to you in class, you associate with it other bits of information about your surroundings, mood, seating position, and so on. These bits can serve as retrieval cues, anchor points you can use to access the target information when you want to retrieve it later

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web of associations

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the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Ex: after seeing or hearing rabbit, spelling the spoken word hair/hare in which we are later more likely to spell the spoken word as h-a-r-e. the spreading of associations unconsciously activates related associations

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priming

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learning or being testing are best recalled when you learn or test in the same spot or in the same context; not in different areas i. Ex: babies: infants learned that kicking a crib mobile would make it move (via connecting ribbon from the ankle), the infants kicked more when tested again in the same crib with the same bumper than when in a different context ii. Ex: scuba divers were given a list of words to listen to in two different settings, either underwater or on land. Words that they heard underwater, they were able to recall under water, but not as well on land, and words heard on land, were better recalled on land than underwater

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context effect

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i. Absent mindedness - inattention to details leads to encoding failure (our mind is elsewhere as we lay down the car keys) ii. Transience - storage decay over time (after we part ways with former classmates, unused information fades) iii. Blocking - inaccessibility of stored information (seeing an actor in an old movie, we fell the name on the tip of our tongue but experience retrieval failure - we cannot get it out)

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3 reasons memory can fail

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man that was a musician. He could remember how to do things, but didn't remember that he did them. He thought he was doing everything for the first time, even though he already knew how to do it from previous. This was the same effect as the HM who was the person who learned to drive the car but couldn't remember doing so. - Unconscious memory?

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Clive Wearing

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our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list more than in the middle

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serial position effect

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but after a delay - after they shift their attention from the last items - their recall is best for the first items

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primacy effect

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the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. i. Your gloomy mood may facilitate recalling other bad times

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mood congruent memory

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a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event i. Most adults can recall exactly where they were when they heard the news of 9/11

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flashbulb memory

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: the recollection of an event, or the details of an event, that did not occur i. Many false memories involve confusing or mixing fragments of memory events, some of which may have happened at different times but which are remembered as occurring together

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false memory

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the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information i. Ex: if you buy a new combination lock, your memory of the old one may interfere

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proactive inference

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: the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information i. Ex: more forgetting of syllables occurred when a person stayed awake and experience other new material than the person who went to sleep

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retroactive inference

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memory is more like kaleidoscope and not like a videotape. because we constantly delete and add pieces that may have/may not have happened. sometimes we choose to remember bits and leave out others.

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kaleidoscope reconstruction

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a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test BETTER THAN RECALL

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recognition

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a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on fill-in-the-blank test

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recall

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memory is any sign that something learned has been retained

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psychologist definition of memory

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trauma therapist who experimentally implanted false memories of childhood traumas in people. She challenged the idea that it is false memories, and not just the repression of memories. She dealt with sexual abuse first hand. Whenever her uncle told her that she was the one to find her mom's dead body, she thought it was a repressed memory, but her sibling told her that it was her aunt not her that found her mom, so her uncle had a false memory and she didn't have repression.

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Elizabeth Loftus

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i. In operant conditioning. Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. Increases the preceding response (rate of responding). Strengthens the response. Makes the behavior more likely to occur ii. Increases behavior

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reinforcer

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decreases behavior. It is when you apply something (application) of something aversive (spanking)

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positive punishment

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It is when you remove something or take something away. (revoke cell phone or drivers license

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negative punishment

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i. Demonstrating the desired behavior and then imitating a behavior after observing it

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modeling

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i. Imitation - they become more likely to act out what they have seen whether it was good or bad ii. Desensitizes - it makes viewers to become less sensitive when they see things such as brawls or murders on tv

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how TV influences behavior and attitudes

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perhaps because the last items on a list are still in working memory, people briefly recall them especially quickly and well

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Recency effect

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an unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

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prejudice

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this group of people blames past and present SITUATIONS. situational attribution**

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political liberals

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this group of people blames PERSON rather than situation. *dispositional attribution*

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political conservatives

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