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Determines how a person will exert effort. Represents the forces operating on the person to exert effort, as well as the direction in which the effort will be exerted.

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Motivation

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Need-based (Content) Theories Focus on what motivates a person, rather than on how that motivation occurs. Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow) Specifies five levels of needs capable of motivating behavior: Physiological, security, social, esteem, and self-actualization.

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Motivation and Needs

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ERG Theory (Alderfer) Identifies three rather than two levels of needs Allows for regression from a higher-level need to a lower-level need. Dual-Factor Theory (Herzberg) Posits motivators and hygiene factors as separate sets of work conditions that can satisfy needs

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Motivation and Needs Theories

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Process Theories Focus on how a person becomes motivated and what they are motivated to do, rather than on what motivates them. Reinforcement Theory (Skinner) Proposed that all behavior is a function of its consequences.

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Process Theories of Motivation

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A behavior followed by positive consequences is likely to be repeated.

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Positive Reinforcement

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A behavior followed by no consequences is not likely to be repeated.

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Extinction

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A behavior followed by negative consequences is not likely to be repeated.

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Punishment

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The combination of positive reinforcement with either punishment or extinction so that an undesired behavior disappears and is replaced with a desired behavior.

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What is Behavior Modification

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When a behavior is rewarded only part of the time

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Partial Schedules of Reinforcement

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When behavior is reinforced as a function of the passage of time

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Interval Schedules of Reinforcement

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When behavior is reinforced as a function of how many times the behavior occurs

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Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement

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The decision to exert effort depends on the anticipated outcome received for the effort is based on expectations, instrumentalities, valences, and linkages among these components.

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Expectancy Theory (VIE Theory)

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Is concerned with a person's perceived inputs to a (work) setting and the outcomes they receive from that setting. Suggests that individuals calculate their ratio of inputs to outcomes as one would consider a return on an investment.

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Equity Theory

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Suggests that: People with goals work harder than people without goals. Not all goals are created equal. Goals that are difficult, specific, and concrete motivate employees best.

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Goal Theory

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Is concerned with: The diverse interests and goals held by an organization's stakeholders, including its employees and managers. The methods through which an organization's reward system can be used to align these diverse interests and goals.

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Agency Theory

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The motivation to do work because it is interesting, engaging, or challenging, rather than because one is rewarded to do the work.

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Intrinsic Motivation

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Involves doing things at work that are innovative and that provide a measure of value for the organization.

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Creative Behavior

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HR mgr must play a critical role in: 1. the ability and 2. the motivation sides of performance

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Basic model of performance

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are theories of motivation that focus on what motivates a person, rather than on how that motivation occurs

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Need based theories

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the hierarchy of needs model proposed by Abraham Maslow specifies five levels of needs that are capable of motivating behavior: physiological, security, social, esteem and self-actulaization

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Best know need based theory

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prepotent needs are those specific needs (of the five levels in the model) that are capable of motivating behavior at any given point in time

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Maslow's theory

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Self actualization needs: achievement, challenging job Esteem needs: status - job title Belongingness ened: friendship, friends in a work group Security needs: stability, pension plan Physiological needs: sustenance, base salary

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the five needs

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includes such things as the need for food or water

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physiological needs

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includes anything involving a safe and secure environment

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security needs

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include the need to have meaningful interactions and relationships with others

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social needs

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includes the need to have a positive view of oneself

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esteem needs

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the need to reach one's personal potential

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self actualization

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are satisifed with the work life services they provide but only 16 percent of employees agree

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HR execs

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HR managers value different services than employees do - mgrs. assume expensive high profile services such as on site gyms and health care options are what employees want in a workplace that claims to promote good work life balance only 20% of employees value these services

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Corporate Executive Board (CEB) Study

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- 60% of 50,000 workers polled specified flexible schedules as the single best important benefit an employer can offer - flextime allows employees to adjust the time and/or place for completing their work - family friendly policies - flextime, telecommuting, job sharing along with family resources - backup child and eldercare, discounts at children centers

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What do people really want?

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sometimes they move down the hierarchy as well

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People are motivated by more than one level of need at any point in time

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Alderfer proposed a variation on Maslow's theory that he called the ERG theory. His theory substituted 3 levels of needs for Maslow's five - he labeled them existence needs, relatedness needs and growth needs. These 3 levels simply collapse Maslow's five categories into three, but the more important aspect is that he suggested that people might move either up or down the hierarchy and he allowed for multiple levels of needs being preponent

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Clayton Alderfer's proposal

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Clayton Alderfer's ERG theory

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a need based theory of motivation proposed by Clayton Alderfer, ERG theory involves three rather than two levels of needs, and also allows for someone to regress from a higher level need to a lower level need

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Research into this theory, however, has provided little empirical support its model

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a need based theory proposed by Frederick Herzberg, dual factor theory identifies motivators and hygiene factors as two sets of conditions oat work that can satisfy needs.

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are motivation theories that focus on how people become motivated and what they are motivated to do rather than on what motivates them

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Process theories

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is a process theory, usually associated with B. F. Skinner that proposes that all behavior is a function of its consequence

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Reinforcement theory

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stimulus - a cue in the environment response - a behavior outcomes - consequences that follow from the behaviors

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Stimulus response outcome model of behavior

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refers to the situation in which a behavior is followed by positive consequences and thus is likely to be repeated

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positive reinforcement - a term from reinforcement theory

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refers to the situation in which a behavior is followed by no consequences and eventually disappears

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extinction - a term from reinforcement theory

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is the combination of positive reinforcement with either punishment or extinction that replaces an undesired behavior with a desired behavior

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behavior modification

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positive reinforcement - rewards are likely to lead to employee volunteering extinction - is not what the organization wants because employees will not volunteer to stay late punishment - disastrous - nobody will volunteer ever again

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when a company wants employees to stay late

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1. desirable behavior: praise, behavior likely to be repeated, positive outcome 2. desirable behavior: working late - ignored, behavior less likely to be repeated, no outcome 3. desirable behavior - working late - must stay, behavior unlikely to be repeated, negative outcome 4. undesirable behavior (poor quality of work) - praise, behavior likely to be repeated, positive outcome 5. undesirable behavior (poor quality of work) - ignored, behavior less likely to be repeated, no outcome 6. undesirable behavior (poor quality of work) - must redo all work - behavior unlikely to be repeated, negative outcome

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3 scenarios in which behavior is undesirable at work

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Continuous schedule - shortest time to learn -resistance to extinction - least resistant - productivity - average productivity fixed interval - longer - resistant - lowest variable interval - longest - most resistant - next lowest fixed ratio - longer - resistant - next highest variable ratio - longest - most resistant - highest

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effects of different partial reinforcement schedules

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means rewarding a behavior only part of the time rather than all the time, it can be applied to punishment as well but the reward case is simpler

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partial reinforcement

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are partial reinforcement schedules in which behavior is reinforced as a function of the passage of time - for example, rewarding someone every 10 minutes as long as long as they were exhibiting desired behavior ratio schedules - are partial reinforcement schedules in which behavior is reinforced as a function of how many times the behavior occurs - for example, rewarding someone every fifth time a desired behavior occurs fixed interval schedules - are interval schedules in which the amount of time that must pass before a reward is given is constant over time

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interval schedule

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fixed - employees aid once every 2 weeks variable - employees are promoted as a function of time with the firm but the amount of time between promotions can vary substantially fixed ratio - an employee is paid on a piece rate such as one dollar for every ten units produced variable ratio - a bonus system is based on performance with the number of units that must be produced to receive a bonus varying over time

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examples of different schedules

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are interval scheduesin which the amount of time that must pass before a reward is given can change from one reward period to another

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variable interval schedule

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are ratio schedules in which the number of times a behavior must occur before it is rewarded remains constant over time

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fixed ratio schedule

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are ratio schedules in which the number of times a behavior must occur before it is rewarded changes over time

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variable ratio schedule

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is a fairly complex process theory of motivation that casts the employee in the role of decision maker. An employee decides whether or not to exert effort, depending on the outcomes he or she anticipates receiving for those efforts as based on calculations concerning expectancies, instrumtalities, valences, and the links among these three componenets

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expectancy theory or VE theory

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is a person's perception of the probability that an increase in effort will result in an increase in performance. This can be a range from 0 to 1.0

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effort to performance expectancy, or expectancy

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is a person's perception of the probability that improved performance will lead to certain outcomes. Operationally seen as a correlation coefficient indicating that as performance improves, the chances of gaining outcomes can either go up, a positive correlation, remain unchanged, a zero correlation, or go down, a negative correlation

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Performance to outcomes expectancy, or Instrumentality

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effort, effort to performance expectancy - environment/performance/ability, performance to outcome expectancy (also called instrumentality), outcome/outcome/outcome = valence of outcomes

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the expectancy theory of motivation

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refers to how attractive or unattractive an outcome is for a person

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valence

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improving performance increases the chances of receiving a raise and decreases the chances of being fired (positive correlation = the raise, / negative correlation = no effect on getting fired. valances can be positive, negative or neutral

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another way to look at valence

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outcomes (self), inputs (self) inequity: motivation to reduce inequity 1. change inputs 2. change outcomes 3. alter perceptions of self 4. alter perceptions of other 5. change comparisons 6. leave situation

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comparison of self with other

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outcomes (other), inputs (others) equity motivation to maintain current situation

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comparison of self with others

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the situation is known as overpayment inequity

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when the employee's input - outcome ratio is more favorable than that of the comparison person

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the goal of any attempt to motivate employees is assumed to be to convince them to exert effort on some aspect of the job a. will effort lead to performance? no - no effort will be exerted, yes, effort will be exerted b. will performance lead to rewards? never - no effort will be exerted, perhaps, effort may be exerted c. will performance in this area help reach organizational goals? no, no rewards, no effort - yes, rewards will follow/effort may be extended d. are the rewards offered equitable and fair? no - no effort will be exerted, yes - effort may be extended e. do the rewards satisfy important needs of the employee? no - no effort will be extended, yes, effort will probably be extended

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integrative model of motivation

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a fairly simple model of motivation based on the premise that people with goals work harder than people without goals. Beyond that, the theory suggests that not all goals are created equal, and that goals that are difficult and yet specific and concrete will motivate employees best

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goal theory - first proposed by Ed Locke

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potential conflicts of interests among different groups of stakeholders in an organization. The name of the theory, and some of its basic principles, is derived from the fact that, in most modern organizations, the indivduals who own a firm do not actually run it on a daily basis. Problems arise when the interests of the owners (the principals) are in conflict with the interests of the managers (agents)

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agency theory addresses

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is the motivation to do work because it is interesting, engaging, or possibly challenging rather than because someone is rewarding us to do the work

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intrinsic motivation

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involves doing things at work that are innovative and provide some value for the organization

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creative behavior

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Motivation is a psychological feature that arouses an organism to act towards a desired goal and elicits,controls, and sustains certain goal-directed behaviors. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological one that compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. - reward received (getting an A for hard work)

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extrinsic behavior

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false

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There are human resource managers who do a perfect job of recruiting, selecting, and training. a. True b. False

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false

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The lowest level of needs, according to Abraham Maslow, are called security needs. a. True b. False

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true

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According to Abraham Maslow's model, only one level of need is capable of motivating behavior at any given time. a. True b. False

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false

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Reinforcement theory was developed by Abraham Maslow. a. True b. False

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true

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Creative behavior involves doing things at work that are innovative and provide some value for the organization. a. True b. False

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d. Maslow

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________ proposed the well-known theory of motivation which specifies five levels of needs that are capable of motivating behavior. a. Skinner b. Watson c. Pearls d. Maslow e. Jung

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b. Self-actualization

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________ needs refer to the need to reach one's full potential, according to Maslow. a. Belongingness b. Self-actualization c. Esteem d. Physiological e. Security

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c. prepotent

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According to Maslow's theory, ________ needs are those specific needs that are capable of motivating behavior at any given point in time. a. belongingness b. self-actualization c. prepotent d. physiological e. security

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a. Herzberg

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Dual factor theory was proposed by ________. a. Herzberg b. Hawthorne c. Skinner d. Maslow e. Watson

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d. Process

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________ theories are motivation theories that focus on how people become motivated and what they are motivated to do rather than on what motivates them. a. Needs b. Agency c. Goal d. Process e. Intrinsic

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d. Skinner

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________ proposed that all behavior is a function of its consequence. a. Maslow b. Locke c. Watson d. Skinner e. Thorne

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e. outcomes

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Reinforcement theory has three components: stimulus, response, and ________. a. needs b. afterthought c. behaviors d. feelings e. outcomes

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e. Positive reinforcement

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________ refers to the situation in which a behavior is followed by a positive consequence and thus is likely to be repeated. a. Punishment b. Negative reinforcement c. Extinction d. Behavior modification e. Positive reinforcement

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e. Partial reinforcement

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________ means rewarding a behavior only part of the time rather than all the time. a. Punishment b. Negative reinforcement c. Extinction d. Behavior modification e. Partial reinforcement

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a. Intrinsic motivation

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________ is the motivation to do work because it is interesting, engaging, or possibly challenging rather than because someone is rewarding us to do the work. a. Intrinsic motivation b. Negative motivation c. Extrinsic motivation d. Behavior motivation e. Partial motivation

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