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of language involve the topography (i.e., form, structure) of the verbal response

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formal properties

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involve the causes of the response. Complete acct of language must consider formal and functional element

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functional properties

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(a) Phonemes: Individual speech sounds that comprised a word (b) Morphemes: the units with an individual piece of meaning (c) lexicon: the collection of words that make up a given langauge (d) syntax: organization of words, phrases or clauses in sentences (e) grammar: adherence to established conventions of a given language (f) semantics: what words mean

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Formal descriptions of language

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individual speech sounds that comprised a word

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(a) Phonemes:

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the units with an individual piece of meaning

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(b) Morphemes:

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the collection of words that make up a given langauge

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(c) lexicon

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organization of words, phrases or clauses in sentences

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(d) syntax:

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adherence to established conventions of a given language

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(e) grammar

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what words mean

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(f) semantics:

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words as nouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions, and articles.

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The formal description of a language can be accomplished also by classifying

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is that he rejected the formal classifications of language. He did not find fault with classifications or descriptions of the response, but rather with the failure to account for the "causes" or functions of the classifications.

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A common misconception about Skinner's analysis of verbal behavior

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1) biological, 2) cognitive 3)environmental.

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Theories of language can be classified into three categories

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is that language is a function of physiological processes and functions.

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The basic orientation of the biological theory

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-language is controlled by internal processing systems that accept, classify, code, encode, and store verbal information. -Spoken and written language are considered to be the structure of thought.

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Proponents of the cognitive approach to language propose that

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Skinner (1957) proposed that language is learned behavior, and that it is acquired, extended, and maintained by the same types of environmental variables, and principles that control nonlanguage behavior (i.e., stimulus control, motivating operations, reinforcement, extinction). As bx that is reinforced through the mediation of another persons bx. Ex: open the door can produce the reinforcer of an open door mediated thought he bx of a listener

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Defining Verbal Behavior

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Skinner published Verbal Behavior in 1957. -Skinner believed that Verbal Behavior would prove to be his most important work. -Noam Chomsky, an MIT Linguist who had published his own account of language the same year as Skinner's Verbal Behavior was an outspoken critic. -Skinner never responded to Chomsky's review because of the reviews condescending tone and Chomsky's clear misunderstanding of Skinner's behaviorism.

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Skinner and Development of Verbal Behavior

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- behavior that is reinforced through the mediation of another person's behavior. Verbal behavior involves a social interaction between speakers and listeners. ex: Open the door can be produce the reinforcer of an open door mediated through the behavior of a listener. This reinforcer is indirectly obtained, but is the same reinforcer that can be obtained nonverbally by opening the door

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Skinner defined verbal bx as

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The listener must learn how to reinforce the speakers' verbal behavior, meaning that listeners are taught to respond to words, and interact with speakers.

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The listener

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- Verbal behavior involves social interaction between speakers and listeners, whereby speakers gain access to reinforcement and control their environment though the behavior of listeners. -Skinner's verbal behavior is primarily concerned with the behavior of the speaker.

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The speaker

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.-has acquired a new meaning, independent from Skinner's usage. -In the field of Pathology verbal behavior has become synonymous with vocal behavior. In psychology the term nonverbal communication was contrasted with the term verbal behavior, implying that verbal behavior was vocal communication and nonverbal behavior was non-vocal communication

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Verbal behavior has acquired a new meaning, independent from Skinner's usage.

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-The term "verbal" has also been contrasted with quantitative as in GRE and SAT tests. -Verbal behavior includes vocal-verbal behavior and nonvocal-verbal behavior.

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Verbal Behavior: A Technical Term

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- This is what Skinner referred to this unit as. operant implying a type of class of bx as distinct from a particular response instance

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Verbal Operant

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-of verbal behavior is the functional relation between a type of responding and the same independent variables that control nonverbal behavior, namely: (a) motivating variables (b) discriminative stimuli (c) consequences

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Unit of Analysis:

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Set of such unites of a particular person

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Verbal répertorie

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1) Mand 2) Tact 3) Echoic 4) Intraverbal 5) Textual 6)Transcription

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Skinner (1957) identified six different types of elementary verbal operants:

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-is a type of verbal operant in which a speaker names things and actions that the speaker has direct contact with through any of the sense modes. ex: chip saying car bc he sees car -is a verbal operant under the functional control of nonverbal discriminative stimulus, and it produces generalized conditioned reinforcement. ex: nonverbal stimulus becomes an SD with the process of discrimination training.. shoe may not fxn as Sd for verbal response shoe until after saying shoe in the presence of a shoe produces differential reinforcement.

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Tact

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-A type of verbal operant in which speaker asks for ( or states, demand, implies, etc) what he needs or wants Ex: for directions when lost - is a verbal operant for which the form of the response is under the functional control of motivating operations (MO's) and specific reinforcement. - are the first verbal operants acquired by a human child. ex: differential crying when child is hungry -is the only type of verbal bx that directly benefits the speaker reinforcers such as edible, toys, attention, or removal of aversive sitmuli -

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Mand

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-skinner pts out that ___often become strong forms of verbal behavior because of specific reinforcement, and this reinforcement often satisfies an immediate deprivation condition or removes some aversive stimulus.

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skinner pts out that mand is

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-Between the stimulus and the response or response product occurs when the beginning, middle, and end of the verbal stimuli matches the beginning, middle and end of the response

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Echoic Point to point correspondence

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- is a type of verbal operant that occurs when a speaker repeats the verbal behavior of another speaker. -Repeating the words, phrases, and vocal behavior of others, which is common in day-to-day discourse, is considered this verbal operant -This operant is controlled by a verbal discriminative stimulus that has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with the response. ex: child saying cookie after hearing spoken word cookie

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Echoic

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-occurs when the controlling antecedent stimulus and the response or response product (a) share the same sense mode (e.g., both stimulus and response are visual, auditory, or tactile) and (b) physically resemble each other. -The ability to echo the phonemes and words of others is essential for learning to identify objects and actions. -______repertoire is important for teaching language to children with language clays and it serves as critical role in the process of teaching more complex verbal skills

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Echoic Formal similarity

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-Have same verbal properities as echoic bx as demonstrated by their role in acquisition of sign language by children who are deaf -Strong imitative repertoire permits teacher to use sign language

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Motor imitation

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-Skinner also presented __as a type of verbal behavior in which a written verbal stimulus has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with a written verbal response. -Because this relation has the same defining features as echoic and imitation as it relates to sign language, the three will be treated as one category, echoic.

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Copying a Text

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-is a type of verbal operant in which a speaker differentially responds to the verbal behavior of others. Ex: buckeyes after hearing someone say, who won the game - also important components of many normal intellectual repertoires, such as saying "Sacramento" as a result of hearing "What is the capital of California?"

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Intraverbal

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- occurs when a verbal discriminative stimulus evokes a verbal response that does not have point-to-point correspondence with the verbal stimulus. -Like all verbal operants except the mand, the interverbal produces generalized conditioned reinforcement. Ex. in the education context, the rein. for correct answers usually involves some form of GCR such as Right! or points.

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Intraverbal operant

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(a) a mand repertoire allows a speaker to ask questions (b) a tact repertoire permits verbal behavior about an object or event that is actually present (c) a intraverbal repertoire allows a speaker to answer questions and to talk about (and think about) objects and events that are not physically present.

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Collectively, mands, tacts, and intraverbals contribute to a conversation in the following ways:

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1) They both produce generalized condition reinforcement 2) Both are controlled by antecedent verbal stimuli 3) there is point to point correspondence between the antecedent stimulus and the response

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textuals and echoics are similar in 3 respects

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- is reading, without any implications that the reader understand what is being read. - has point-to-point correspondence but not formal similarity, between the stimulus and the response product. ex: Verbal stimuli is visual or tactual and response is auditory. and auditory response matches visual or tactual stimuli saying shoe upon seeing written word shoe

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Textual

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-consists of writing and spelling words that are spoken. -Skinner also refers to this behavior as taking dictation. - is a type of verbal behavior in which a spoken verbal stimulus controls a written, typed, or finger-spelled response. -There is point-to-point correspondence but no formal similarity. ex: When asked to spell the spoken word "hat" a response H-a-t is a transcription

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Transcription

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-The listener not only plays a critical role as a mediator of reinforcement for the speaker's behavior, but also becomes a discriminative stimulus for the speaker's behavior. -In functioning as a discriminative stimulus, the listener is a audience for verbal behavior.

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Role of the listener

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-is a discriminative stimulus in the presence of which verbal behavior is characteristically reinforced and in the presence of which, therefore, it is characteristically strong.

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-An audience

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-Verbal stimulus control may also evoke a listener's nonverbal behavior. Skinner (1957) identified this type of listener behavior ex: someone says "shut the door " the bx of shutting the door is nonverbal but shutting the door is evoked by verb stimuli

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understanding

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-Some behavior is strengthened or weakened, not by external consequences, but by its response products which have reinforcing or punishing effects.

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automatic reinforcement and automatic punishment.

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1) Does an MO control the response form? If yes, then the operant is at least part mand. 2) Does an SD control the response form? If yes, then: 3) Is the SD nonverbal? If yes, then the operant is at least part tact. 4) Is the SD verbal? If yes, then: 5) Is there point-to-point correspondence between the verbal SD and the response? If not, then the operant is at least part intraverbal. IF there is point-to-point correspondence, then: 6) ) Is there formal similarity between the verbal SD and the response. If yes, then the operant must be echoic, imitative, or copying a text. if not then the operant must be textural or transcription.

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Identifying Verbal Operants

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-Verbal behavior can produce automatic reinforcement, and it has a significant role in the acquisition and maintenance of verbal behavior. 1. A neutral verbal stimulus is paired with an existing form of conditioned or unconditioned reinforcement. 2. A vocal response as either random muscle movement of the vocal cords or reflexive behavior produces an auditory response that on occasion may sound somewhat like someone's words, intonations, and vocal pitches.

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2 stage conditioning history in establishing vocal response as automatic reinforcers

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- The novel stimulus shares all of the relevant or defining features of the original stimulus Ex: speaker who learns to tact " Car" in the presence of white pontiac and in presence of veil blue mazada, Generic extension is evoked by simple stimulus generalization.

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Tact Extensions Generic Extension:

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- the novel stimulus shares some but not all of the relevant features associated with the original stimulus. ex: Romeo was experiencing beautiful sunny day and when he saw Juiliet both elicit respondent behavior good feelings. He says juliet is like the sun

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Tact extension Metaphorical extension

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-verbal responses to novel stimuli that share none of the relevant features of the original stimulus configuration, but some irrelevant but related feature has acquired stimulus control -One word substitutes for another. meaning that a part is used for a whole ex: say "car" when shown picture of a garage or say "white house requested" in place of president lincoln requested

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Tact Extensions Metonymical extension:

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-occurs when a stimulus property that is only indirectly related to the tact relation evokes substandard verbal behavior such as malaprops. ex: person may say, " you read good" instead of " you read well" Saying "car" when referring to the driver of the car

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Tact Extensions Solistic extension:

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-What is commonly referred to as "thinking" involves overt stimulus control and private events (e.g., covert stimulus control).

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Private event

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1) The participant can directly observe the private stimuli, but the applied behavior analyst cannot. 2) private stimulus control of verbal episodes in the natural environment will likely remain private

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The analysis of private stimulation and how it acquires stimulus control is complex because of two problems:

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-Caregivers also teach young persons to tact their private stimuli by using collateral responses (i.e., observable behavior) that reliably occur with private stimuli.

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Private event Collateral responses

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-occurs when an observable stimulus accompanies a private stimulus. ex: father can observe child bump head. But not private event and more salient painful stimuli experienced by child

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Private event Public Accompaniment

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- also involve public stimuli, but in a different way. A speaker may learn to tact temporal, geometrical, or descriptive properties of objects and then generalize those tact relations to private stimuli.

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Private Events: Common Properties

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-Most speakers learn to tact features of their own bodies such as movements and positions. -The kinesthetic stimuli arising from the movement and positions can acquire control over the verbal responses. -Then movements shrink in size (become covert), the kinesthetic stimuli may remain sufficiently similar to those resulting from the overt movement that the learner's tact occurs as an instance of stimulus generalization. ex: child can report imagining swimming or can report self talk about a planned convo with someone or an report thinking of asking for a wnew toy. Response produced by private covert verbal behavior can evoke other verbal bx.

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Private Events: Response Reduction

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-also occurs when a single antecedent variable affects the strength of many responses. ex: word football may evoke a variety of intraverbal response from different ppl and from the same person at different times -can also occur with mand and tact relations. Single MO may strengthen a variety of responses " I'm hungry" or "lets go to a restaurant" -SIngle nonverbal stimulus can also strengthen several response forms as when picture of a car strengthens the response car, automobile or ford

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Divergent Multiple Control

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-Identifies when the occurrence of a single verbal response is a function of more than one variable. ex: Why did Us enter WWII? may evoke MO ( part mand); verbal discriminative stimuli ( part echoic, interverbal, or textual); or nonverbal stimuli ( making it part tact); presence of a specific audience.

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Convergent multiple control

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-verbal operants are mands, tacts, and intraverbals and involve different response topographies controlled by a common variable. intRAverbal ex: SD: Blue can evoke verbal response such as lake, ocean, and sky

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Thematic Verbal Operants

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-Are echoic (imitation, copying a text), and textual (and transcription,) -are controlled by a common variable, with point-to-point correspondence. EX: SD: RING" CAN EVOKE VERBAL RESPONSE SUCH AS "SING,""WING," SPRING"

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Formal verbal operants

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- can be any combination of thematic or formal sources, even multiple sources from within a single verbal operant, such as multiple tacts or multiple intraverbals.

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Elaborating Multiple Control

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Different audiences may evoke different response forms. A positive audience has special effects, especially a large positive audience (e.g., as in a rally for a certain cause) as does a negative audience.

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Multiple Audiences

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-Although information rendered from language assessments are helpful in may ways, the tests do not distinguish among the mand, tact, and intraverbal repertoires, and important language deficits cannot be identified.

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Language Assessment

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-Identify when a speaker's own verbal behavior functions as an SD or an MO for additional speaker verbal behavior. -Verbal behavior about a speaker's own verbal behavior -Listener learns to discriminate whether to serve or not serve as mediator of reinforcement for those verbal stimuli. A speaker becomes a listener, and observer of his own verbal bx and its controlling variables , and then in turn becomes a speaker again

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Autoclitic relations

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Informs the listener of the type of primary verbal operant it accompanies. - informs the listener of some nonverbal aspect of the primary verbal operant and is therefore controlled by nonverbal stimuli ex: I see mommy. Primary verbal operant (tact) is the nonverbal Sd ( childs mother). REsponse " "mommy" and the associated reinforcement history The secondary verbal operant is the speakers tact informing that a nonverbal sd evoked the primary verbal operant

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Autoclitic Tact Relations

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(Level 1): MO's and /or SD's are present and affect the primary verbal operant. The speaker has to have something to say.

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Primary Verbal Operants

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(Level 2): The speaker observes the primary controlling variables of her own verbal behavior and her disposition to emit the primary verbal behavior.

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Secondary verbal operant

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-Speaker's use it frequently to help the lstener present effective reinforcers. -A specific MO controls the it, and its role is to mand the listener to react in some specific way to the primary verbal operant.

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Autoclitic Mand Relations

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-Skinner (1957) points out, "An auoclitic affects the listener by indicating either a property of the speaker's behavior or the circumstances responsible for that property" (p. 329). "In the absence of any other verbal behavior whatsoever autoclitics cannot occur. It is only when [the elementary] verbal operants have been established in strength that the speaker finds himself subject to the additional contingencies which establish autoclitic behavior" (p.330).

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Developing Autoclitic Relations

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-For an early language learner the ability to repeat words when asked to do so plays a major role in the development of other verbal operants. -Many children with autism and other language delays are unable to emit echoic behavior - special training procedures are required to develop the echoic repertoire

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Echoic training

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-The behavior analyst should examine the current effectiveness of each verbal operant. - Obtain information about the child's mand repertoire. - What behavior does the child engage in to obtain the reinforcement? - When the reinforcement is provided, does the mand behavior cease? - What is the frequency and complexity of the various mand units?

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Language Assessment...

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-Skinner's analysis suggests that a complete verbal repertoire is composed of each of the different elementary operants, and separate speaker and listener repertoires. -Individual verbal operants are then seen as the bases for building more advanced language behavior.

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Language Intervention

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-Mands allow the subject to control the delivery of reinforcers when those reinforcers are most valuable. -If mands fail to develop in a typical manner, negative behavior such as tantrums, aggression, social withdrawal, or self-injury that serve the mand function commonly emerge. -, responses needs to be under the functional control of the relevant MO. The easiest mands to teach in an early language intervention program are usually mands for items for which the MO is frequently strong for the child and satiation is slow to occur (e.g., food, toys, videos -should be a significant part of any intervention program designed for children with autism or other severe language delays.

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Mand Training

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1. Teach the child to repeat the words and phrases emitted by parents and teachers when asked to do so. 2. Establish a generalized repertoire the child can repeat novel words and combinations. 3. Transfer the response form to other verbal operants.

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Goals of Echoic Training

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-The most common is direct echoic training in which vocal stimulus is presented and successive approximations to the target response are differentially reinforced. -Involves a combination of prompting, fading, shaping, extinction, and reinforcement techniques. -Placing an echoic trial within a mand frame. -The MO is a powerful independent variable in language training and can be temporally used to establish other verbal operants. -Increasing any vocal behavior may facilitate the ultimate establishment of echoic control. Directly reinforce all vocal behaviors. Automatic reinforcement procedures can be used by pairing a neutral stimulus with an established form of reinforcement, the neutral stimulus can become a conditioned reinforcer.

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Initial Echoic Stimulus Control

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-A child must learn to tact objects, actions, properties of objects and actions, prepositional relations, abstractions, private events, and so on. -The goal is to bring a verbal response under nonverbal stimulus control. -A mand frame can be used to establish tacting -Teaching tacts of actions requires that the nonverbal stimulus of movement be present and a response such as "jump" be brought under the control of the action of jumping. -Teaching involving prepositions, adjectives, pronouns, adverbs, and so on, also involves the establishment of nonverbal stimulus control.

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Tact training

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-Many children with autism, developmental disabilities, or other language delays suffer from defective or nonexistent intraverbal repertoires, even though some can emit hundreds of mands, tacts, and receptive responses. In general, verbal stimulus control over verbal responding is more difficult to establish than nonverbal control. --Formal training on for a language delayed child should not occur until the child has well established mand, tact, echoic, imitation, receptive, and matching-to-sample repertoires.

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Intraverbal Training:

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Although beyond the scope of this chapter, there several other components of a verbal behavior program and curriculum such as: receptive language training matching-to-sample mixing and varying trails multiple response training sentence construction conversation skills peer interaction reading writing

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Additional Aspects of Language Training:

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