Personality Psychology 356 Flashcards

originate from the historical, social, and psychological world of their originators.

simple

convergent validity

There is a mutual and dynamic interaction between them

predictive validity

contributes to expanding a theory.

transform unconscious material into consciousness.

sex and aggression

preconscious and unconscious forces

gifts as a writer and his emphasis on sex and aggression

aim-inhibited love

was not as fully developed as a boy's superego

expenditure of psychic energy

social interest

subjective perception of self and environment

will to power

Adler could not accept Freud's strong emphasis on sexual factors as motivators of behaviour

regression

inborn, but brought to expression through experience

striving for superiority or success

the extent to which a measuring instrument yields consistent results.

the degree to which the instrument or test measures what it is supposed to measure

it's based on his belief that most dreams are wish fulfullments. Some dreams are expressed through manifest content, which is the surface meaning of the dream given by the dreamer, while others are expressed in the latent content, which is the underlying and unconscious meaning behind the dreams. His concept of dreams states that dream interpretation can uncover the true meaning behind the dreamer's dreams because. This is done through recalling the dream and using free association.

Repression is the most basic defence mechanism. Whenever the ego feels threatened, it protects itself by forcing those threatening feelings into the unconscious. A woman may repress the sad feelings she has for her dead husband because it causes too much anxiety. Regression is a defense mechanism in which during times of stress and anxiety, the libido will return to an earlier developmental stage. A child may go back to sucking their thumb or bed wetting after a the birth of a new sibling.

According to Adler, firstborn children have intensified feelings of power, high anxiety, and overprotective tendencies, as firstborns have been an only child for a long time and then experience a traumatic experience when a new sibling is born. If a firstborns are over 3 years old during the event, they incorporate it into their style of life. If they are under 3, these feelings will go to the unconscious and will be hard to change later on. The second born develop cooperation and social interest, and their personalities are shaped by their perception of their siblings attitudes. The child will become competitive if this attitude is hostile. Youngest children are the most pampered and run a high risk of being problem children. Only children compete against the parents, and develop exaggerated sense of superiority and self-concept.

The need for more than one theory lies with scientific research. In many cases, one theory can only enhance research to a certain degree. Whereas numerous theories can lead to new hypothesis and new observations that lead to fascinating new discoveries.

theatrical mask

must be precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major tenets.

a. usefulness

A theory may generate one or more hypotheses

Theories are tools used by scientists to give meaning to observations.

ego at the urging of the superego

moral

generosity and benevolence

identifies with his father's morals and ideals

instigates repression

sublimation

anal

a person's attempt to strive for superiority

he came from a Jewish background. he had a younger brother who died in infancy. he was second born.

provide clues for solving future problems

fixation

his ship capsized and he had to swim to safety

their goals too high

hesitating

A useful theory generates two kinds of research - descriptive research, which expands an existing theory, and hypothesis testing, that leads to indirect verification of the theories usefulness. A useful theory must also be falsifiable, so it must be precise enough that research may either support or fail to support its major points. A useful theory is able to organize research data into a theoretical framework. A useful theory is able to act a reliable guide for practitioner's. A useful theory is able to be consistent within itself. Its limitations of scope are defined and does not venture past the scope outlined, and it will use concepts and terms that are clear and operationally defined. A useful theory is able to be simple and straightforward.

Adler, a fiction is a belief or expectation of the future that motivates present behaviour. In his concept of fictionalism, this fiction acts as a final goal that guides one's style of life. Fictions may not be true but people act as if they were true because people are motivated by their subjective perceptions of what is true. He adopted a telelogical point of view in which people are motivated by their perceptions of the future.

The author of the text rates Adler's ideas above average on its ability to generate research as many social interest scales have been developed based on his theory. His theories ability to organize knowledge is rated high due to his practical views, and his ability to guide action is rated very high. However, his theory lacks internal consistency, and his parsimony is about average. His main concept of early childhood recollections having an impact on one's style of life has become difficult for researchers to verify or falsify. Adler's ideas without a doubt encompass the boundaries for a scientific theory. His ideas have sparked numerous social interest scales, and his methods have proved helpful to practitioner's using individual psychology to treat their clients. The inability to scientifically study his concept of creative power, or that early childhood recollections positively correlate to current style of life, make it difficult to deduce that his ideas are considered scientific. In terms of casual studies, his theory has been rendered useful, but is lacking in the scientific areas.

feeling

cathartic method

high on extroversion and feeling scales of the MBTI

impossible to falsify

people's tendency to react to biologically inherited response patterns

nourishment and destruction

a composite of opposing forces

develop positive feelings toward both parents

fantasizes that the father's penis feeds the mother with babies

the paranoid-schizoid and the depressive

fantasizing about kicking or destroying the "bad" breast

very early infancy

needing others. dependence upon others. competition.

childhood

compliance

basic anxiety

clinical experiences with neurotic patients

moving against others moving toward others moving away from others

lead to intrapsychic conflict

Horney's concept of humanity focuses cultural and social factors, especially during childhood, and the effects they have on personality.. Her concept was based almost solely on her expierences with neurotic patirents, so her personality theory is strongly inspired by neurosis. To her, the difference between normal and neurotic individuals is the degree of compulsiveness one has to the three neurotic trends. Her theory is rated slightly higher on free choice than determinism because psychotherapty can give both neurotics and normal individuals control over intrapsychic conflict. Horney believed that people possess inherited drives that push them towards self-realization. If basic anxiety is avoided, people feel safe and secure and will develop healthy personalities. She stated the goal for people is self-realization but also that childhood experiences block the path to self-realization. Neurotics do not have a complete understanding of themselvs and do not see that their behaviour furthers their neurosis.

Ainsworth measured the attachment style between an infant and the caregiver called the Strange Situation. It's a 20 minute session where a mother and child are alone in a playroom when a stranger comes into the room and shortly thereafter begins to interact with the child. The mother goes away for two separate two-minute periods. In the first session, the infant is left alone with the stranger, and in the second session the child is left completely alone. In a secure attachment, when the mother returns the infant is happy and enthusiastic, initiating contact. All secure children are confient in the accessibility of the caregiver. In the anxious-resistant style, the infants are doubtful. They become upset when the mother leaves and when she returns they go to her but they reject attempts at being soothed by her. In the anxious-avoidant style, the infants stay calm when the mother leaves and they ignore and avoid the mother when she returns. Insecure infants lack ability to engage in exploration.

Intrapsychic processes originate from interpersonal experiences but at some point they become a life of their own. One of two important intrapsychic conflicts is the idealized self-image. When an individual feels alienated from themselves, they acquire a stable sense of identity and they solve this by created an overly positive view of themselves. For compliant people, they see themselves as saintly, for aggressive people they see themselves as strong and heroic, and detached neurotics see themselves as wise and independent. Horney recognized three aspects of the idealized self-image: the neurotic search for glory, or a comprehensive drive toward actualizing the ideal self; neurotic claims, or a belief that they are entitled to special privileges; and neurotic pride, or a false pride based not on reality but on a distorted and idealized view of self. The second important conflict is self-hatred. Neurotics dislike themselves because reality doesn't conform to their idealized view of self. This can be expressed as relentless demands on the self, self-accusation, self-contempt, self-frustration, self-torment, and self-destructive actions and impulses.

These trends are: moving toward people, where compliant people protect themselves against feelings of helplessness by seeking affection and approval of others or seeking a powerful partner; where aggressive people protect themselves against their belief that everyone is hostile by exploiting others and using them for their own benefit; and moving away from people, in which detached people protect themselves against feelings of isolation by putting emotional distance between themselves and others.

Horney's focus on neurosis has become a hinderence to the strength of her theory. She discusses how individuals are driven to self-realization but due to her focus on neurosis, she doesn't give much of an idea of what a self-realized person would be like. Her theory is rated low on its ability to generate research and low on its ability to be falsified. Certain elements of her theory fail to provide testable hypothesis and creates difficulty for verification and falsifiability. Although, recently in large part to Coolidge and his colleagues developing the HCTI, Horney's focus on neurosis has allowed them to find ways to measure neurotic trends. In the world of non-scientific study, this is a huge step towards developing enough research to allow the theory or concept to be verified or falsified. However, her focus on neurosis allows for a higher rating on its ability to organize knowledge even though one does not gain much knowledge about people in general. Her theory is a good guide for action in the sense that people understand a warm and loving environment helps a childs development, but beyon that the theory doesn't give detailed courses of action. As well, her theory is rated low on internal consistency but high on parsimony.I would not consider Horney's social psychoanalytic theory to be scientific due to the fact that Horney's theory doesn't meet most of the requirements of a scientific theory. I would say however that even with the limitations to her theory that it has the potential to become a scientific theory. Her own research was not enough to meet the requirements of a scientific theory, but there is enough material within her theory to allow future researchers to conduct experiements and investigations that may expand the theory enough to be considered scientific.

masochism and sadism

a. lack authenticity and individuality. b. often behave in a stiff, predictable manner. c. lose their identity as a unique person.

force the information into an organization that she can understand

transcendence

neurotic

is approximately 12 to 18 months of age

an energy system

appeared to grow out of his own childhood experiences

preadolescence

anxiety

the school age

the school age

women who focus on the well being of others pay a price of lowered satisfaction with their own lives

disdain

early childhood

differentiates self-actualizers from non-self-actualizers

the motivation of self-actualizing people

in the direction away from self-actualization

limited view of humanity.

a. distinguish self-actualizing people from those healthy people who do not reach self-actualization. b. are so highly interrelated that they probably represent a single factor.

The Jonah Complex is described by Maslow as the feat of being one's best. It is often characterized by a person seeminly running away from their destiny; based off of the Biblical Jonah, who tried to escape his fate. Just as the fear of achieving a personal worst can motivate personal growth, the Jonah complex can also hinder achievement, and prevent self-actualization. The Jonah Complex stands out most in neurotic people, but nearly everyone has some hesitance towards achieving self-fulfillment.

Non productive orientations include: receiving things passively - receptive characters feel the source of all good lies outside themselves and they can only relate to the world by receiving things such as love, knowledge and material possessions. Negative traits of receptive people include passivity, submissiveness, and lack of self confidence. Their positive traits are loyalty, acceptance, and trust. exploiting, or taking things through force - exploitative characters believe that the source of all good is outside themselves, and they aggressively take what they desire rather than receiving it, are more likely to steal rather than create, and are willing to express a pilfered opinion. Negative traits of exploitative characters are egocentric, conceited, arrogant, and seducing. Their positive traits are impulsivity, pride, charm, and confidence. Hoarding characters seek to save that which they have already attained, they hold everything inside and do not let anything go, keeping money, feelings, and thoughts to themselves. They are similar to Freud's anal characters. They will try to possess loved ones and try to preserve relationships, live int he past, and are repelled by new things. Negative traits of the hoarding characters are rigidity, sterility, obstinacy, complusivity, and non-creative. Positive traits are orderliness, cleanliness, and punctuality. The marketing character is an outgrowth of modern commerce in which trade is no longer personal but carried out by faceless corporations, they see themselves as being in constant demand, making others believe they are skilled and salable. They are without past or future, and have no permanent values. Negative traits of the marketing character are aimlessness, opportunism, inconsistency, and wastefulness. Positive traits are changeability, open-mindedness, adaptability, and generosity. The single productive orientation has three dimensions - working, loving, and reasoning. Because productive people work toward positive freedom, they are the most healthy of all characters. Healthy people value work as a means of creative self-expression. They use work as a means of producing life's necessities. Productive love is characterized by care, responsibility, respect, and knowledge.

Fromm's most basic assumption is that individual personality can only be understood through human history. Fromm believed that humans have been torn away from their prehistoric union with nature and left with no powerful instincts to adapt to a changing world - but they acquired the ability to reason, to think about their isolated condition, a condition Fromm called the human dilemma. People experience this because they are seperate from nature but have the capacity to be aware of themselves as isolated beings. It permits people to survive, but also forces them to attempt to solve existential dichotomies. The first dichotomy is the one between life and death - we will die, but we believe in life after death. The second dichotomy is humans are capable of conceptualizing the goal of complete self-realization, but are aware life is too short to reach the goal. The third is that people ar eultimately alone, but cannot tolerate isolation.

Erikson believed the ego develops through the various stages of life accoring to an epigenetic principle - meaning a step-by-step grwoth of fetal organs. For example, if the eyes or liver do not develop during that critical period for their development, they will suffer. The ego follows the path of epigenetic development. One stage emerges from and is built upon a previous stage, but it does not replace the earlier stage. For example, children must crawl before they can walk, and walk before they can run. However, children will never let go of their ability to crawl or walk just because they can run.Each part exists before its critical time (usually as biological potential), emerges at a specific time, and continues to develop during subsequent stages.

Intimacy grows out of the need for tenderness but is more specific and requires a close interpersonal relationship between two people of equal status. Intimacy develops prior to puberty usually during preadolescence. Intimacy requires an equal partnership, so it does not usually exist in parent-child relationships unless both are adults and see one another as equals. Intimacy is an integrating dynamism that tends to draw out loving reactions from the other person, this allows a decreases anxiety and loneliness which in turn allows intimacy to be a rewarding experience that people desire. Sullivan considered lust as impersonal sexual desires. Lust is an isolating tendency that does not require another person for satisfaction.It manifests itself in autoerotic behavior regardless of the object. Lust is a powerful dynamism during adolescence because it often leads to reduced self-esteem since lustful attempts are rejected, thus increasing anxiety. lust also hinders intimate relationships, especially during adolescence when confused with sexual attraction.

their organismic self

distort the person's self-concept

actualizing tendency

other people's positive regard toward them

enables clients to listen to their organismic self

a. the antiscientific views of some existentialists. b. attempts to dilute existential psychology into a painless method of psychological self-help. c. Carl Rogers's views on the nature of human evil.

eros

a. sex. b. eros. c. philia. d. agape.

leads to neurotic or morbid guilt

Umwelt

a marking or engraving

diaries

the uniqueness of the individual

stylistic

are basically homeostatic or unchanging

a. be conventional and down-to-earth, preferring the familiar. b. support traditional values and prefer a fixed lifestyle.

unrelated to each other

factor loadings

both rely on taxonomies to generate research

unipolar; bipolar

Allport's concept of functional autonomy proposes that some motives are not functionally connected to prior experiences and are indepedent from the original motive responsible for that behaviour. One does not have to look beyond a motive for hidden causes if a motive is considered functionally autonomous. Forces that motivated us early in life become autonomous. What begins as one motive may grow into a new motive that is previously related but functionally autonmous from it. He proposed two levels of functional autonomy: preservative functional autonomy and propriate functional autonomy. Preservative functional autonomy is based on simple neurological principles. It is concerened with behaviour such as addiction, and repetitive physical actions (such as habits). The behaviour continues on its own without any external reward. For example, when a rat that has been trained to run a maze for food has its hunger satisfied, may continue to run the maze but obviously not for the purpose of food. Propriate functional autonomy refers to those self-sustaining motives that are related to the proprium. These motives are not part of the proprium but exist only on the periphery of personality. Hobbies and interests are closer to the core of personaltiy and many motivations concerning them become functionally autonomous. Allport considered propriate functional autonomy most important and it is essential to understanding adult motivation. For example, a woman begins a job because she needs money even though the work is unattractive to her, eventually she develops a passion for the job itself and perhaps even develops a hobby closely related to her job. A present motive is functionally autonomous to the extent that it seeks new goals. Biological drives, motives linked to basic drive reduction, reflex actions, constitutional equipment, habits being formed, primarily reinforced behaviour, subliminations, and some neurotic or pathological symptoms are not functionally autonomous.

The basic assumptions of person-centered theory are the formative tendency and the actualizing tendency. Rogers believed there is a tendency for all matter to evolve from simpler to more complex forms (formative). Rogers stated that there is a tendency within all humans, plants, and animals to move toward completion or fulfillment of potentions (actualizing) & is the only motive people possess. The need for maintenance includes basic needs, but also includes the tendency to resist change and seek the status quo. People have a strong tendency to maintain the status quo, but they are willing to learn and to change - this need to develop is called enhancement. Enhancement is reflected in curiousity, playfulness, and confidence one can achieve psychological growth. A human's actualization tendency is realized only under certain conditions. A relationship involving congruence, authenticity, empathy, and unconditional positive regard is one of these conditions. Self-actualization is the tendency to actualize the self as perceived in awareness. When the organism and the perceived self are in harmony, the two actualization tendencies are nearly identical, but when they are not in harmony, a discrepency exists. The self-concept includes aspects of one's being and one's experiences that are perceived in awareness by the individual. The self-concept is different from the organismic self. Once people form their self-concept the find change difficult, and experiences inconsistent with their self-concept are usually denied or distorted. The ideal self is the second subsystem of the self - which is one's view of self as they wish they were. A wide gap between ideal self and self-concept indicaed incongruence. There are three levels of awareness. First, some events are experienced below the threshold of awareness and are either ignored or denied. Second, some experiences are accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure. Third, some experiences are perceived in a dostorted form. The processes necessary for becoming a person include an individual making contact - positive or negative - with another person. If a person feels cared for and loved, their need for positive regard is at least partially satisfied. It is a prerequisite for positive self-regard. Conditions of worth - receiving love only when certain expectations are met, incongruence - failure to recognize our organismic experiences as self-experiences, vulnerability - the gap between perceived self and organismic experience, anxiety and threat - an awareness of incongruence, defensiveness - the protection of self from anixety and threat, and disorganization - failure of defenses, are all considered barriers to psychological health. Roger's noted that counselor congruence, unconditional positve regard, empathetic listening are requirments for successful therapy. Roger's theory of theraputic change states that if the following conditiond exist: anxious client, counselor with congruence, unconditional positve regard and empathetic listening, then the client will become more congruent, be less defensive, be open to experience, have a realistic view of the world, devleop positive self-regard, narrow the gap between ideal self and real self, be less vulnerabl, be less anxious, beomcing accepting of others, and become more congruent in relationships with others.

May recognized two forms of freedoms: existential freedom and essential freedom. Existential freedom is the freedom of action, the freedom of doing. It is defined as the freedom to act on the choices on makes. Essential freedom is the freedom of being. Existential freedom makes essential freedom difficult. The denial of liberty seems to allow people to face their destiny and to gain their freedom of being (essential freedom).

Allport traced the word persona back to the ancient greeks. He spelled out 49 definitions of personality as used in theology, philosophy, law, sociology, and psycology. He finalized with his defnition of personality: the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his charcteristic behaviour and thought.Allport used the term dynamic organization so it implies integration and interrelatedness of the various aspects of personality. It is organized and patterened, but is always subject to change. The term psychophysical emphasizes the importance of both psychological and physical aspects. The term determine implies that personality is something and does something.

Eysenck developed his factor theory using taxonomy and biology. The key for him, is that genetic differences lead to structural differences in the central nervous system, including brain structure, horomones, and neurotransmitters, and these differences in biology lead to differences along the three factors of personality: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Evidence for the biological basis of personality come from many different sources such as temperament, behavioural genetics, and brain measure research. He contented that psychometric sophistication alone is not sufficient to measure the structure of human personality and that personality dimensions arrived at through factor analysis are sterile and meaningless unless they have a biological existence. Eysenck estimated that about three fourths of the variance of all three of his founded personality dimensions (E,N,P) can be accounted for by heredity and about one fourth by environmental factors.

differences in temperament affect the manner in which people respond to behaviour management techniques

the goal of psychology should be the prediction and control of behaviour

fixed-interval

after escape and revolt have failed

inappropriate behaviours shaped by environmental contingencies

cognitively mediated

self-efficacy through self-reflection positively changed dispositional shyness

setting realistic goals and receiving feedback on performance

self-efficacy

a. personal standards. b. performance attribution. c. a standard of reference. d. the value we place on those actions.

their personal dispositions

the source of control is generally within themselves

the situation

is more highly valued than one that satisfies a weak need

capable of anticipating events

a. the client and therapist work out a predetermined role for the client to play. b. the construction systems of other people are anticipated.

carry meaning for us to discover

a metatheory

accounts for the fact that people can hold seemingly incompatible beliefs

discover ways in which clients construe significant people in their lives

Kelly believed that people should be free to choose courses of action most consistent with their prediction of events by selecting the goal of pyschotherapy. The therapists role is to assist clients in altering their construct systems while the client is an active participant. Kelly used what is called fixed-role therapy as a technique to allow for this situation. This technique is designed to help clients change the outlook of life by acting in a specific role. It acts as a creative process that allows clients to discover previously hidden aspects of themselves; first peripheral roles and then core roles. The goal is to have clients interpret their lives from a differnet perspective.

Skinner believed that scientific behaviorism should not reference needs, instincts, or motives, because they limit the advancement of science. Skinner used principles from the laboratory to interpret the behaviour of humans, but stated that interprertations should not be confused with an explanation. To Skinner, science has three main characteristics: science is cumulative, it is an attitude that values empricial observation, and science is a search for order and lawful relationships. Skinner believed that prediction, control, and description of human behaviour is possible because it is determined and lawful. Human behaviour is determined by certain identifiable variables and follows lawful principles that can be known. Behavior that appears to be individually determined is simply beyond scientist's current ability to predict or control.

Human agency is an active process of exploring, manipulating, and influencing the enviornment in order to attain desired outcomes. There are four core features of human agency.Intentionality - it involves planning and acting. People continually change their plans as they become aware of the consequences of their actions. Forethought - setting goals and anticipating outcomes. People are capable of breaking free from their environmental constraints. Self-reactiveness - motivating and regulating actions. People make choices and they monitr their progress toward fulfilling their choices. Self-reflectiveness - thinking and evaluating their motivations, values and goals. People can evaluate their own actions as well as how other people's actions effect them. His concept of self-efficiacy is the most crucial self-reflective mechanism.

Rotter's social learning theory includes the notion that people have the ability to see a casual connection between their behvaiour and the occurence of a reinforcer. People have the tendency not to increase their feelings of personal control after experiencing success and others do not lower their expectancies after repeated failures. Rotter suggests that both the situation and the person contrinbute to the feelings of personal control. To assess internal and external control (or locus control) he created the Internal-External Control Scale. It consists of 29 forced-choice items; 23 are scored and 6 are fillers.The scale is scored in the direction of external control so that 23 is the highest external score and 0 is the highest internal score. The scale attempts to measure the degree to which people perceive a casual relationship between their own efforts and environmental consequences. People who score high on internal control generally beleive the source of control resides within themselves and they exercise a high level of personal control in most situations. Those that score high on external control generally believe that their life is controlled by outside forces. Scores inclined to internal control, without being extreme, are the most healthy and desirable.

Skinner was a determinist, believing people are not free but controlled by the environment; when people control their lives they do so by manipulating their environment. Skinner beleived that freedom and dignity are reinforcing concepts because they are satisfying and people behave in ways that increase the probability of obtaining these constructs. Skinner believed that people are capable of reflecting on their own nature and this behavior can be observed and studied. Skinner's view of human nature is highly optimistic, believing tha thumans are very adapptable and learn to live harmonously with their environment. He wishes for a utopian society where people are taught how to arrange the environment so that the probability of correct or satisfying solutions are increased. Skinner's view is high on causality, believing that behavior is caused by a history of reinfocements and the specis' contingencies for survival. Skinner's view is high on unconscious dimensions of personality; these complex environmental contingiencies responsible are beyond a person's awareness. As previously said, Skinner believes that human behavior is based on the environment; but social environment plays an even more important role in personality development. Skinner hoped people could be trustworthy, understanding, and empathetic but humans are not by nature good. However, they can become so if they are epxosed to proper contingencies of reinforcement. Because the history of a person determines behavior, and each person's history of reinforcement is different, Skinner stressed the uniqueness of the individual more so than their similarities.

Kelly believed that people should be free to choose courses of action most consistent with their prediction of events by selecting the goal of pyschotherapy. The therapists role is to assist clients in altering their construct systems while the client is an active participant. Kelly used what is called fixed-role therapy as a technique to allow for this situation. This technique is designed to help clients change the outlook of life by acting in a specific role. Kelly's fixed role therapy was especially successful because the client and therapist took other people's personal construction systems. Te client would first act out the role in the therapeutic setting before enacting it outside of therapy for numerous weeks. It acts as a creative process that allows clients to disocver previously hidden aspects of themselves; first peripheral roles and then core roles. In both situations, the goal is to have clients interpret their lives from a differnet perspective.

Kelly believed that people should be free to choose courses of action most consistent with their prediction of events by selecting the goal of pyschotherapy. The therapists role is to assist clients in altering their construct systems while the client is an active participant. Kelly used what is called fixed-role therapy as a technique to allow for this situation. This technique is designed to help clients change the outlook of life by acting in a specific role. Kelly's fixed role therapy was especially successful because the client and therapist took other people's personal construction systems. Te client would first act out the role in the therapeutic setting before enacting it outside of therapy for numerous weeks. It acts as a creative process that allows clients to disocver previously hidden aspects of themselves; first peripheral roles and then core roles. Before fixed-role therapy, Kelly would offer his clients "preposterous interpretations" for their complaints. In both situations, the goal is to have clients interpret their lives from a differnet perspective.