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What is an argument?

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Any text -written, visual, or spoken - that expresses a point of view.

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Humor

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Causes readers to recognize how things are (the truth of the joke that we acknowledge when we laugh) and how they might be different. -the sugar that makes the medicine go down. puts readers at ease. -HOWEVER: humor in bad taste discredits a writer completely -Politicians use it to admit to problems or mistakes that they couldnt acknowledge in any other way. Ridicule: humor aimed at a particular target. powerful, but not well intentioned. -> ridicule = double-edged sword. if target doesn't deserve assault and you cant be VERY funny, then avoid it -How it helps Ethos: we'll often listen to people who are confident enough to make fun of themselves, because it means they are clever but also aware of their own limitations.

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Most Obvious Arguments

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Those that make a direct claim based on or drawn from evidence.

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Invitational Argument

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Aims not to defeat another person or group but to invite others to enter a space of mutual regard and exploration.

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Argument vs. Persuasion

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Argument- uses evidence and reason to discover some version of the truth. Leads audiences toward conviction. Persuasion - aims to change a point of view or to move others from from conviction to action. "People argue to discover the truth and persuade when they think they already know it."

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Conviction

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An agreement that a claim is true.

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Propaganda

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An argument that sets out to persuade at all costs, abandoning truth, reason, and fairness.

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Rogerian Argument

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(Named after psycho-therapist Carl Rogers) Based on approaching audiences in non-threatening ways and on finding common ground and establishing trust among those who disagree about issues.

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Arguments to Inform

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Main purpose is to tell members of an audience something they didn't know.

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Arguments to Convince

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Aim to convince readers rather than win out over opponents.

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Arguments to Make Decisions

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*Closely allied to exploratory arguments. Often, the result of those may be to argue for a particular decision. *Argue your way through alternatives with yourself, friends, colleagues, or family *Pros and cons

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Arguments to Meditate or Pray

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The writer or speaker is often hoping to transform something in him- or herself or to reach a state of equilibrium/peace of mind.

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Academic Arguments

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An argument held to the standards of a particular professional field or discipline. *More formal and impersonal style than arguments in the public arena, often.

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Classification Overlap

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When classifying argument, it is common that they will span over more than one category. For example, arguments about the past with implications for the future or arguments about the future with bearings on the past.

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Arguments about the Past

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*What DID happen?* A.k.a. forensic arguments. Often used in business, gvmt, academia, and criminal/civil cases. -Relies heavily on evidence and testimony in order to recreate what can be known about events that already occurred. -Also relies on precedents -Doesn't have to be heated. Can be simply exploratory and open-ended

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Precedents

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actions or decisions in the past that influence policies or decisions in the present.

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Arguments about the Future

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*What WILL or SHOULD happen?* a.k.a. deliberative arguments. Often used in legislature, congresses, and parliaments, which are called "deliberative bodies" b/c they establish policies for the future. -B/c what happened in the past affects decisions about the future, deliberative judgements rely on prior forensic arguments. -> relies on past occurrences to support points on the future. -Reasoned guesses

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Arguments about the Present

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a.k.a. Epideictic arguments or ceremonial arguments b/c they tend to be in public settings, like speeches, sermons, eulogies, inaugural addresses, and civic remarks of all kind. Often about contemporary values - the beliefs and assumptions that are widely held (or debated) in a society. -Commonly about praising what's admirable and blaming what's not.

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Stasis Theory

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A way of categorizing arguments by their stasis - the kind of issues they address.

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Stasis Questions

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These help determine the POINT OF CONTENTION in an argument. Which question is the argument focusing on? -Did something happen? -What is its nature? -What is its quality or cause? -What actions should be taken?

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Arguments of Fact

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"Did something happen?" -Usually involves a statement that can be proved or disproved with specific evidence or testimony. -Often is more complicated than you would think, because many points have to be looked at and agreed on before you can move forward with evidence.

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Arguments of Definition

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"What is its nature?" OR "What is the nature of the thing?" -Often involves determining whether one known object or action belongs in a second - and highly contested - category. EX: Abortion or Gay Marriage

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Arguments of Evaluation or Causality

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"What is its quality or cause?" -Definition explains whether a corvette is a sports car. Evaluation/causality argues whether its a GOOD sports car or BETTER than others. -Typically, you present criteria and then measure individual things against those standards. -CAUSALITY: we want to know why something happened, what factors have shaped the situation we're in, or what might happen in the future as a result of what actions we take now. = how/why something happened

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Proposal Arguments

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"What actions should be taken?" How to begin: make sure you can shape it as a convincingly severe problem. THEN: the question. It will lead you to develop proposals for action.

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Intended Audience

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Readers existing in the writer's mind.

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Invoked readers

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Those readers represented in the text.

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Real readers

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Readers as they actually exist, which may not be among those originally intended by the author.

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Use of Personal Pronouns

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It can sometimes establish common ground, but it is risky. If readers don't fit into an "us" they may feel excluded. They've suddenly become "they" or "them".

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Contexts

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Reading takes place in a series of contexts that move outward like concentric circles from the most immediate situation to broader environments. -From where people are reading the story. -What's happened to the readers in the past.

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Pathos

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Emotional appeals. Generate emotions in readers that shape their responses and dispose them to accept a claim.

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Ethos

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Presentation of self. Make an ethical appeal by proving that you know what you're talking about. Build credibility by emphasizing that you and your audience share the same value and that you respect them. Show that you are even-handed. -a particular character will not appeal to every audience

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Logos

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Appeals to logic. The FACTS.

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The rhetorical situation

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'''''''''''''''''''''''' Topic/Message ''''''''''''''''''''''' (logical appeals) ''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' / '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' /''''' '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' /_____ Audience/Readers ''''''''' Speaker/Writer (emotional appeals) '''''' (Ethical Appeals)

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Rhetorical Turn of Mind

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Change of audience in a project can lead you to reconsider your appeals. Chape of topic may require rethinking your audience. ->Thinking like that is developing a rhetorical turn of mind.

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How Pathos can be bad

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Democracies suffer when people use emotional arguments (and related fallacies like personal attacks and name calling) to drive wedges between groups, making them fearful or hateful.

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Pathos - Move to Action

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Works well when you're trying to move an audience to action. Readers may agree that contributing to charity is a noble act, but this conviction may not be enough to persuade them to actually donate. WAYS EMOTION CAN GET THEM TO DONATE: -embarrass them into contributing to a good cause -make them feel the impact of their gift -tell them a moving story

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Using Emotion to Build Bridges

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Use emotion to establish common ground/assure readers that you understand their experiences. -Connect emotionally by making the readers feel empathy -When supporting a risky claim that most audiences may not agree with, put yourself in a situation that the whole audience would understand so that you leave yourself open to both sides of the argument.

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Using Emotions to Sustain an Argument

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-Pathos can make logical claims stronger or more memorable. CAUTION: lay on too much emotion-esp. outrage, pity, or shame, which make people uncomfortable- and you may end up offending your audience. -Emotion can be generated when you present an argument in its starkest terms, stripped of qualifications or subtleties.

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Pathos: the happy medium

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Don't play puppet master with people's emotions, but do spend time early on thinking about how you want readers to feel as they consider your persuasive claims.

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Human-Interest Stories

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Stories that give presence to issues or arguments.

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The parts of Ethos

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-Must seem honest and likeable -Affirm an identity and share parts or all of it with an intended audience.

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The "Claims" of Ethos

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-A person(or group) does or does not have the authority to speak to this issue. -A person (or g) is or is not trustworthy or credible on this issue. A pers. (or g) does or does not have good motives for addressing this subject.

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"Professionals" vs. Neighborhood guy in Ethos

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-To answer serious questions, people typically turn to professionals - doctors, lawyers, teachers, pastors - for wise, well-informed, and frank advice. -People will listen to those that they know&trust more than they will listen to a stranger. That is why people will trust the word of the "car guy" over the reviews in Consumer Reports.

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Pathos leading to Ethos

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Sometimes, gut-wrenching personal experience leads to a sense of Ethos/expertise.

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Ethos is Personal Titles

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Writers will attach academic and professional titles to their names (i.e. Dr., PhD.) which subtly builds their authority by saying "this is how I've earned the right to be heard".

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Authority vs. Credibility

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Whereas authority is a measure of how much command a writer has over a subject, credibility speaks to a writer's honesty, respect for an audience and its values, and plain old likability. -You can establish credibility by connecting your own beliefs to core principles that are well-established and well-respected.

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Bibliographies & Ethos

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Back up reasonable claims with evidence and documentation. In an online format, make sure you're linking back to reliable sites where you got your info.

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Presentation of Self

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Readers and audiences will respond to how you present yourself when making an argument. That's why the student who turns in an important, formal paper on neatly typed pages will be better received by the teacher than the student who turns in a sloppily handwritten essay that's been ripped from a spiral notebook. -Choose your medium carefully. Do you need graphs? Should there be extensive footnotes, or should it be crisply written in a block of text?

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Respect for readers

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Address them neither above or below their capabilities. Use helpful graphs. Cite trustworthy sources to show you've done your homework.

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Conditions of Rebuttal

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Making concessions within the argument to objections that readers might raise. They send a strong signal to the audience that you've scrutinized your own position. Envision your most annoying and critical audience and it will help you work out weak parts of the argument

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Tone

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If in doubt, always show respect: politeness is rarely if ever inappropriate.

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Motives

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Motives affect your credibility. -"What interests are they serving? How will they PROFIT from their proposal?" People will look at your associations and attack them if they are bad. Such attacks are common in political circles. These associations can ruin your credibility by showing you have bad motives.

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Logos v. Ethos

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People are often inclined to test the facts against our feelings and against the ethos of those making the appeal.

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Hard Evidence

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To Aristotle: inartistic appeals-facts, clues, statistics, testimonies, witnesses. -People often prefer arguments based on fact and testimony to those grounded in reason alone. Sometimes can be doctored. If this is discovered, is it no longer fact? Often, the ethos is ruined.

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Artistic appeals

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Reason and common sense. Artistic and inartistic often overlap.

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Smoking gun

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the piece of hard evidence that ties a defendant to a crime.

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Aristotle thought that all arguments could be reduced to what two components?

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Statement + proof aka Claim + supporting evidence

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Facts

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"We'll even listen to people that we don't agree with if they can overwhelm us with evidence". -Arguing with facts sometimes involves challenging the biases of even the most reputable sources.

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Statistics

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Even if numbers (statistics) are accurate, writers need to interpret them for the purposes of their argument because numbers cannot stand alone.

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Surveys and polls

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Polls come as close to expressing the will of the people as anything short of an election (the most decisive poll of all. -Make sure you scrutinize the context, and therefore ethos, of the poll. -Don't discount a poll b/c its findings aren't what you'd hoped for. Info that goes against what you thought is useful, too. -Make sure you read the analysis of poll results. Like statistics, polls often cannot stand on their own when put in the context of supporting an argument. -Need to word questions correctly... -Keep date in mind. As time changes, it affects accuracy.

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Testimonies and Narratives

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Human experience as fact. -often used in court. -Personal experience carefully reported can also support a claim convincingly, esp. if the writer has earned the trust of readers (Logos & ethos & maybe a little pathos).

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Logic

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A formal study of principles of reasoning

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Syllogisms

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A vehicle of deductive reasoning ex: All human beings are mortal Socrates is a human being Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

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Undistributed middle term

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An error in syllogisms. Ex: Penguins are black and white. Some old TV shows are black and white. Therefore, some penguins are old TV shows. "Black and white" is the U.M.T.

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Informal v. Formal logic

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People use informal logic without even realizing it, unconsciously stating claims, drawing conclusions, and making/questioning assumptions when reading or writing.

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Enthymeme

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An ordinary king of sentence that includes both a claim and a reason but depends on the audience's agreement with an assumption that is left implicit rather than spelled out. -Enthy's are "compressed arguments" based on what the audiences know and will accept. -Some need credible evidence to back up the claim of fact - they aren't as straightforward. Ex: We'd better cancel the picnic because it's going to rain.

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In the US, few arguments work better than those based on the principles of _________ and _________ +HOWEVER

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Fairness and Equality _sometimes, fairness is good enough as a reason. You don't need to convince someone that it's bad not to be fair. HOWEVER: different values are embedded in different cultures and make for good argumentative support, depending on the audience.

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Degree

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Most audiences accept: "More of a good thing or less of a bad thing is good"

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Analogy

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DEF: explains one idea or concept by comparing it to something else. Typically a complex or extended comparison.

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Precedent

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It is an argument of two comparable institutions: for example: x Place already does something, therefore Y place can do it too. Court Precedents: What courts have decided in the past often determines how courts will rule on a similar/related issue.

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Rhetorical Analysis

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A close reading of a text to find out how and whether it works to persuade HOW IT WORKS: analyzing how well the component of an argument work together to persuade or move an audience

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Ways style can go wrong

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If it's dull, off-key, or offensive

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Inductive reasoning vs. Deductive reasoning

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the process of generalizing on the basis of a number of specific examples. Find many specific bits of evidence and combine for a generalization/conclusion vs. -assume MAJOR PREMISE (general principal) -apply to MINOR PREMISE (specific case) -get conclusion basis of syllogisms

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Rogerian argument

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Those involved in disputes should not respond to each other until you understand and can fairly state the opposing person's position. More likely to search for compromise (apply to argument by explaining how it benefits your side)

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Toulmin Argment

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-Claim, reasons, warrant -Qualifiers!

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Claim, reason, warrant

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Claim: debatable or controversial statements that you hope to prove (dont eat the mushroom) Reason: supports claim (it is poisonous) Warrant: the logical/persuasive connection between a claim and the reasons and data supporting it (eating poisonous things is dangerous). DOn't let one warrant contradict another.

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Backing

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Evidence used to support a warrant

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Different ways a term can be defined

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-by what it is -by what it isn't -what it includes (and excludes!) -by specific examples -by what authorities observe -by feelings

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Why definitions matter

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they are arguments that define the concepts by which we live and operate -terms are ever changing to fit our needs at the time

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Dictionary Definitions

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-not supreme authority -you can disagree with them -have their own bias -can be a starting point

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Formal Definitions

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Found in dictionaries Defines it in its "genus" then gives it the defining characteristics that put it in a specific species

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Operational Definitions

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identifies an object or idea by what it does or by what conditions it creates. It's conditional (changes based off the situation) ?: Can someone who is paid for their community service still be considered a volunteer?

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Definitions by Example

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Defines a class by listing its individual members. -focuses on who/what would be included in the defining list

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Tentative Claim

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A declarative statement that represents your first response to a situation. -You cannot make an argument of definition if your tentative claim doesnt have a formal definition to weigh it against (you decide the formal?) -X can/cannot be considered a volunteer b/c volunteers are people who... (FORMAL DEF.)

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Jargon

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A common and often highly technical vocabulary shared between people within an academic field. +Careful: Can alienate newcomers who don't recognize the words/acronyms

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Be careful... (definition argument)

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-Use definitive terms instead of general ones with unintended connotations -Need to define/make comprehensible all pieces of your definition -Readers must accept -Need evidence for every part of the argument; visuals can be helpful -Conclusion should draw out the implications of the argument

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Different styles of communication

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High - formal or ornate Middle - Understated and very clear Low - everyday or humorous

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Vocabulary and style

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Word choice should match the subject, tone, and purpose

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Slang

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Benefits: can enliven an argument Dangers: Can bewilder readers Jargon!

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Technical Style Stuff

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*Need to vary sentence structure to keep readers' attention *Concrete style "moves readers along" *Parallel structure *Transitions help avoid boring, repetitive sentence structure *Benefits of a semicolon - stronger than comma less than period *Exclamation points, quesiton marks, colons, dashes. *punctuation is rhythm *Online lingo?

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Figurative Language

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Language that calls up "figures", or "something else" *Aids understanding by drawing parallels between the known and the unknown *Makes arguments memorable *Trope v Scheme

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Trope vs. Scheme

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TROPE: Involves a change in the ordinary meaning of a word or phrase SCHEME: involves a special arrangement of words. adds syntactic "zing"

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TYPES of Tropes

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-Metaphor: -Simile: -Analogy: -Signifying: -Hyperbole: -Understatement -Rhetorical Questions -Antonomasia -Irony

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Simile

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-Simile: A figure of speech using like or as to compare two things

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Analogy

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-Analogy: compares two things, usually point by point, to show similarity or to argue that if two things are alike in one way then they are probably alike in other ways

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Signifying

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-Signifying: when a speaker cleverly and humorously needles the listener. Popular among A-A culture. (Indirection, ironic humor, fluid rhythm, and surprising twist)

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Hyperbole

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Overstatement for special effect. *audiences reaction should be predictable if you use this

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Understatement

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A quiet, muted message to make an effective point.

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Rhetorical Questions

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Don't really require answers. Help assert or deny something about an argument.

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Antonomasia

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shorthand substitutions, often a descriptive word or phrase, for a proper name. Packs arguments into a nickname.

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Irony

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The use of words to convey a meaning in tension with or opposite to their literal meaning

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TYPES of Schemes

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-Parallelism -Antithesis -Inverted word order -Anaphora -Reversed structures

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Parallelism

answer

the use of grammatically similar phrases or clauses for special effect.

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Antithesis

answer

the use of parallel structure to mark contrast or opposition

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Inverted word order

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when parts of a sentence or clause are not in the usual subject-verb-object order. yoda!

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Anaphora

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-effective repetion -acts like drumbeat for rhythm of argument -brings the point home

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Reversed structures

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"Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country" "Your manuscript is both good and original. But the part that is good is not original and the part that is original is not good"

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Visual Argument

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-images as devices of authority (emperors faces on coins) -images to sway audiences -pathos makes stick in memory -reality shaped by the photographer's point of view -People see images differently -can do more than words -we respond to color. choose scheme that will forward the mood and message of argument -If presentation is off, you send the wrong signals. make messages deliberate -communicates preferences -font size can emphasize or deemphasize -put all related info in same font/font size *-What does the creator's attitude seem to be toward the image? -What does the visual text assume about its viewers?*

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Logos/emblems

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-Convey a wealth of cultural and historical implications -Provides credibility

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Graphs

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-conveys info effectively Pie chart: comparing parts to the whole Graph: comparing items over time or by other variables Diagrams or Drawings: drawing attention to details Maps: illustrates location and spatial relationships

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Possible questions to ask yourself about print presentation

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Will font size draw attention to what is most important? What overall tone do you want to create?

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Tips on Successful oral presentation

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-Be knowledgable on subject -Tone of voice, kind of evidence, length of speaking time -Appreciate that oral presentations are interactive -Argue to be HEARD, not READ -Key devices: parallelism, repetition, and climactic order

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Tips on Discussion

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-Listen with purpose -Respond to questions or comments in specific terms -Learn the names of those in the discussion

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Determine in Oral/Multimedia Presentation

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DETERMINE: Purpose of argument Type of Audience Structure of Presentation

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Important Website Principles

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Contrast: Proximity: keeping together parts of the page that make for easy reading Repetition: consistent design of elements like headings/links that make for easy movement thru site Overall Impression: colors/visuals should reinforce

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Blogs

answer

can be authors' pure opinion, or important sources of news, entertainment, politics important abilities: breaking news, building communities, argument, giving voice to the ordinary man

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Firsthand evidence (DEFiNITION)

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comes from research you have conducted or been closely involved in. Requires collection and examination of data, often

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Observation

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not that easy. Eyewitnesses often give different accounts of things. *Things to observe:* -a sequence of actions -repeated actions -interactions of a group -develop a system and be aware of how you record data

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Interview

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How to interview: -determine purpose -prepare list of questions -record biographical information -use a dramatic quotation that represents the opinion of the interview

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Surveys

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-Often require the use of questionnaire -think of the type and number of people you want to survey -free from bias -Test and revise -pay attention to structure

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Experiments

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under rigorously controlled environments for science

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Personal Experience

answer

should be used when it's appropriate to subject, purpose, and audience

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First-Hand Experience TYPES

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-observations -interviews -surveys -experiments -personal experience

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Second-hand evidence DEFINITION

answer

comes from sources beyond yourself. ie books, articles, photos

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Library Sources

answer

Remember distinction between: Library databases Websites

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Subject headings vs. Keywords

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Subject headings: standardized words and phrases used to classify the subject matter of books and articles Keywords: use computer's ability to look for any term in any field of the electronic record. less restrictive.

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Researching

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Keep in mind: -What sources needed? -How current must sources be? -How many sources to consult? -Do you know way around lib.?

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Two ways to search

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1. subject categories - keep clicking increasingly narrow links til reach list of articles 2. like a search engine

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Don't rely on:

answer

extreme/outlier circumstances

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Circumstantial evidence

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indirect evidence that suggests that something occurred but doesn't prove it directly

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Critical Mass

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Enough evidence to support/prove a claim

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Fallacies

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arguments flawed by their very nature or structure

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Flashpoint or hotspot

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instantly raises questions about the ethics of argument - whether it is fair, honest, or principled

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Ad hominem

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"to the man" a strategy of attacking the character of people you disagreed with rather than the actual substance of the argument

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Danger of pathos

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pulling on heartstrings too often violates the good faith on which legitimate argument depends

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Scare tactics

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work b/c it's easier to imagine something bad happening than to be realistic about its statistical rarity. cant be used to turn legitimate fears into panic or prejudice

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Either-or

answer

simplify arguments and give them power by reducing the options for action to only 2 choices. often, 1 option drawn in warm light and other made to seem dangerous alternative. Become fallacious when they reduce complicated issues to excessively simple terms or when used to obscure alternatives

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Slippery Slope

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an argument that portrays today's tiny misstep as tomorrow's slide into disaster. become fallacious when author exaggerates the consequences of an action and frightens readers

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Sentimental appeals

answer

arguments that use tender emotion excessive to distract readers from facts (like danger of pathos)

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Bandwagon appeals

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arguments that urge people to follow the same path that everyone else is taking. can easily seduce by frenzied obsession in mass media.

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Emotional Fallacies TYPES

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scare tactics either or slippery slope sentimental appeals bandwagon

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trust me

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scary warrant

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Appeals to false authority

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when writers offer themselves or other authorities as sufficient warrant for believing a claim. All about warrants - a good source is not a good wrrant. CLAIM: X is true because Y says so WARRANT: What Y says must be true

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Dogmatism

answer

asserting that only one position is conceivably acceptable within a community. Undermines credibility

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Ethical Fallacies TYPES

answer

False authority Dogmatism Ad hominem

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Logical Fallacies DEFINITION

answer

when the claims, warrants, or pieces of evidence are invalid, insufficient, or disconnected

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Hasty Generalization

answer

an inference drawn from insufficient evidence -because a few people in a large group are observed to act in a certain way, all members of group are inferred to act similarly ->(basis for stereotypes) (qualifiers are always necessary to avoid these)

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Faulty Causality

answer

"Post hoc, ergo propter hoc" "after this, therefore because of this" the fallacious assumption that b/c one event follows another, the first causes the second

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Begging the Question

answer

assuming as true the very claim that is disputed. Circular argument divorced from reality. "the problem with the claim is that it's made on grounds that cannot be accepted as true because these grounds are in doubt" Bad warrant -> A student receiving a C

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Equivocation

answer

an argument that gives a lie an honest appearance. A half-truth. -Language can be used equivocally by using a limited definition of a word

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Non Sequiter

answer

an argument in which claims, reasons, or warrants fail to connect logically; one point doesn't follow from another. -occur when you omit a step in an otherwise logical chain of reasoning, assuming readers agree with some claim that may actually be high contestable

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The Straw Man

answer

attacking an argument that isn't really there. Setting up the straw man: -create an argument that's easy to knock down -do so -claim victory over the opponent, whose real argument was actually different or didn't really exist

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Faulty Analogy

answer

inaccurate or inconsequential comparisons b/w objects or concepts that occur when taken on their own and pushed too far or taken too seriously

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