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Learning

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A relatively permanent change in behavior acquired through experience.

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Reflex

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An involuntary response, one that is not under personal control or choice.

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Classical conditioning

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The process of learning by which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response identical or similar to one that was originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing or association of the two stimuli.

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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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A naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary (reflex) response.

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Unconditioned response (UCR)

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An involuntary (reflex) response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus.

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Neutral stimulus (NS)

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A stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular response.

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned response (CR)

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An acquired or learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

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Stimulus generalization

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The tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

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Stimulus discrimination

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The tendency to differentiate among stimuli so that stimuli that are related to the original conditioned stimulus, but not identical to it, fail to elicit a conditioned response.

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Extinction

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The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response.

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Spontaneous recovery

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The spontaneous return of a conditioned response following extinction.

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Higher-order conditioning

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Occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus.

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conditioned emotional reaction (CER)

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An emotional response to a particular stimulus acquired through classical conditioning.

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Vicarious conditioning

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Classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person.

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Conditioned taste aversion

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Aversions to particular tastes acquired through classical conditioning.

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Biological preparedness

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Referring to the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning.

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Stimulus substitution

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Original theory in which Pavlov stated that classical conditioning occurred because the conditioned stimulus became a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being paired closely together.

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Cognitive perspective

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Modern theory in which classical conditioning is seen to occur because the conditioned stimulus provides information or an expectancy about the coming of the unconditioned stimulus.

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Operant Conditioning

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The process of learning in which the consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated.

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Operant

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Any behavior that is voluntary.

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Reinforcement

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Any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again.

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Reinforcers

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A stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated.

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Primary reinforcer

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Reinforcers, such as food or sexual stimulation, that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives.

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secondary reinforcers

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Learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers.

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Partial reinforcement effect

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The tendency for a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction.

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Continuous reinforcement

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The reinforcement of each and every correct response.

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Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement

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Schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same.

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Variable interval schedule of reinforcement

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Schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event.

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Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement

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Schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same.

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Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement.

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Schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event.

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Punishment by application

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The punishment of a response by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus.

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Punishment by removal

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The punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus.

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Shaping

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A process of learning that involves the reinforcement of increasingly closer approximations of the desired response.

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Successive approximations

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Small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior.

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Instinctive drift

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Tendency for an animal's behavior to revert to genetically controlled patterns.

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Behavior modification

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The use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior.

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Token economy

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Type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens.

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Applied behavior Analysis (ABA)

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Modern term for a form of functional analysis and behavior modification that uses a variety of behavioral techniques to mold a desired behavior or response.

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Biofeedback

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Using feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses, such as blood pressure and relaxation, under voluntary control.

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Neurofeedback

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Form of biofeedback using brain-scanning devices to provide feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior.

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Insight

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The sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly.

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Learned helplessness

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The tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past.

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Learning/performance distinction

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Referring to the observation that learning can take place without actual performance of the learned behavior.

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The four elements of observational learning

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Attention, memory, imitation, and motivation.

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conditioned taste aversions

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Aversions to particular tastes acquired through classical conditioning.

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reconditioning

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The process of relearning a conditioned response following extinction.

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phobias

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Excessive fears of particular objects or situations.

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immune system

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The body's system of defense against disease.

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unconditioned response (UR)

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An unlearned response to a stimulus.

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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A stimulus that elicits an unlearned response.

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computer-assisted instruction

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A form of programmed instruction in which a computer is used to guide a student through a series of increasingly difficult questions.

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superstitious behavior

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In Skinner's view, behavior acquired through coincidental association of a response and a reinforcement.

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avoidance learning

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The learning of behaviors that allow an organism to avoid an aversive stimulus.

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Skinner box

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An experimental apparatus developed by B. F. Skinner for studying relationships between reinforcement and behavior.

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schedules of reinforcement

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Predetermined plans for timing the delivery of reinforcement.

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positive reinforcement

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The strengthening of a response through the introduction of a stimulus after the response occurs.

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negative reinforcement

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The strengthening of a response through the removal of a stimulus after the response occurs.

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programmed instruction

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A learning method in which complex material is broken down into a series of small steps that learners master at their own pace.

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token economy program

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A form of behavior modification in which tokens earned for performing desired behaviors can be exchanged for positive reinforcers.

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radical behaviorism

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The philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth and that human and animal behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences.

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operant response

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A response that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences.

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schedule of partial reinforcement

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A system of reinforcement in which only a portion of responses is reinforced.

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Punishment

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The introduction of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a reinforcing stimulus after a response occurs, which leads to the weakening or suppression of the response.

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law of effect

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Thorndike's principle that responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, whereas those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur.

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Behavior modification (B-mod)

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The systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior.

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escape learning

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The learning of behaviors that allow an organism to escape from an aversive stimulus.

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schedule of continuous reinforcement

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A system of dispensing a reinforcement each time a response is produced.

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discriminative stimulus

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A cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response.

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cognitive map

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A mental representation of an area that helps an organism navigate its way from one point to another.

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Insight learning

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The process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs.

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latent learning

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Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided.

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observational learning

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Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others (also called vicarious learning or modeling).

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cognitive learning

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Learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it.

Psychology ?lassical, operant and cognitive learning – Flashcards

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