Anatomy & Physiology (Chapter one) – Flashcards
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Anatomy
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- "cutting open" (dissection) - study of internal & external STRUCTURES of the body & the physical relationships among those parts
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Physiology
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the study of how living organisms perform their vital FUNCTIONS - individual & cooperative functions
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Medical Terminology
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Involves the use of word root, prefixes, suffixes, & combining forms to construct terms related to the body in health & disease
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eponyms
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- the many anatomical structures 7 clinical conditions were initially named after either the discoverer or, in the case of diseases, the most famous victim - the most of the commemorative names that have been replaced over the past 100 years
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International Anatomical Terminology ( Terminologia Anatomica, or TA)
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Book that serves as the International standard for anatomical vocabulary
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IMPORTANT CONCEPT:
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"All specific functions are performed by specific structures."
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Gross Anatomy
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- macroscopic anatomy - involves the examination of relatively large structures & features usually visible w/ the unaided eye (Many different forms)
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Surface Anatomy
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(Gross anatomy form) the study of the general form & superficial markings
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Regional Anatomy
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(Gross anatomy form) focuses on the anatomical organization of specific areas of the body, such as the head, neck, or trunk
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Systematic Anatomy
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(Gross anatomy form) the study of the structure of organ systems
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Organ System
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groups of organs that function together in a coordinated manner (Skeletal system, muscular system, cardiovascular system are examples)
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Skeletal System
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organ system composed primarily of bones
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Muscular System
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organ system made up of skeletal muscles
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Cardiovascular System
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organ system consisting of the heart, blood, and vessels, which distribute oxygen and nutrients throughout the body
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Developmental Anatomy
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(Gross anatomy form) describes the changes in form that occur b/t conception & physical maturity
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Embryology
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The study of early developmental processes (in developmental anatomy)
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Clinical anatomy
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(Gross anatomy form) includes a # of sub-specialties important in clinical practice -pathological anatomy -radiographic anatomy -surgical anatomy
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Pathological anatomy
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(Clinical anatomy form) anatomical features that change during illness
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Radiographic anatomy
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(Clinical anatomy form) anatomical structures seen using specialized imaging techniques
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Surgical anatomy
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(Clinical anatomy form) anatomical landmarks important in surgery
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Microscopic anatomy
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deals w/ the structures that cannot be seen w/out magnification (& thus the boundaries of microscopic anatomy are established by the limits of the equipment used)
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Cytology
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the study of the internal structure of individual CELLS
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Cells
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the simplest units of life
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Histology
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the examination (study) of tissues
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Tissues
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groups of specialized cell products that work together to perform specific functions
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Organs
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tissues combine to form _________
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Human physiology
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the study of the functions of the human body
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Cell physiology
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study of the functions of cells, is the cornerstone of human physiology -considers events at the chemical & molecular levels -- both chemical processes w/in cells & chemical processes w/in cells & chemical interactions b/t CELLS
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Organ physiology
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study of the physiology of specific organs (ex: cardiac physiology - the study of heart function)
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Systemic physiology
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includes all aspects of the functioning organ systems (ex: cardiac physiology, respiratory physiology, and reproductive physiology)
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Pathological physiology
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study of the effects of diseases on organ functions or system -modern medicine depends on an understanding of both normal physiology & pathological physiology
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The scientific method
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a system of advancing knowledge by formulating a question, collecting data a/b it through observation & experiment. & testing that question, is @ the core of all scientific thought, including medical diagnosis
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Because of all the specific functions are preformed by specific structures
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Describe how anatomy & physiology closely related.
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B/c the structures of the body parts are so closely related to their functions; put it another way, function follows form
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Why is it difficult to separate anatomy from physiology?
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The Chemical (or Molecular) Level
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(Level of organization) Atoms, the smallest stable units of matter, can combine to form molecules w/ complex shapes - form determines function, even at this simplest level
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The Cellular Level
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(Level of organization) Molecules can interact to form various types of organelles, each type of which has specific functions - Organelles are structural & functional components of CELLS, the smallest living units in the body
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The Tissue Level
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(Level of organization) A TISSUE is a group of cells working together to perform one or more specific functions
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The Organ Level
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(Level of organization) ORGANS consist of 2 or more tissues working in combination to perform several functions
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The Organ System Level
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(Level of organization) A group of organs interacting to perform a particular function forms an ORGAN SYSTEM
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The Organism Level
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(Level of organization) An ORGANISM-- in this case, a human -- is the highest level of organization
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Integumentary Organ System
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Major Organs: - skin, hair, sweat glands, & nails Functions: - protects against environmental hazards - helps regulate body temp. - provides sensory info.
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Skeletal Organ System
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Major Organs: -Bones, cartilages, associated ligaments, & bone marrow Functions: - provides support & protection for other tissues - stores calcium & other minerals
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Muscular Organ System
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Major Organs: - skeletal muscles & associated tendons Functions: - provides movement - provides protection & support for other tissues - generates heat that maintains boy temp.
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Nervous Organ System
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Major Organs: - brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, & sense organs Functions: - directs immediate responses to stimuli - coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems - provides & interprets info. about external conditions
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Endocrine Organ System
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Major Organs: - pituitary gland, thyroid gland, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads, endocrine tissues in other systems Functions: - directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems - adjusts metabolic activity & energy use by the body - controls many structural & functional changes during development
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Cardiovascular Organ System
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Major Organs: - heart, blood, 7 blood vessels Functions: - distributes blood cells, water & dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, & carbon dioxide - distributes heat & assists in control of body temp.
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Lymphatic Organ System
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Major Organs: - spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, & tonsils Functions: - defends against infection & disease - returns tissue fluids to bloodstream
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Respiratory Organ System
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Major Organs: - nasal cavities, sinuses, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, & alveoli Functions: - delivers air to alveoli (sites in the lungs where gas exchange occurs) - provides oxygen to the bloodstream - removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream - produces sounds for communication****
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Digestive Organ System
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Major Organs: - teeth, tongue, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, & pancreas Functions: - processes & digests food - absorbs & conserves water - absorbs nutrients - stores energy reserves
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Urinary Organ System
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Major Organs: - kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, & urethra Functions: - excretes waste products from the blood - controls water balance by regulating volume or urine produced - stores urine prior to voluntary elimination - regulates blood ion concentrations & pH
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Male Reproductive Organ System
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Major Organs: - testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, penis & scotum Functions: - priduces male sex cells (sperm), suspending fluids, and hormones - sexual intercourse
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Female Reproductive Organ System
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Major Organs: - ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, labia, clitoris, mammary glands Functions: - produces female sex cells (oocytes) & hormones - supports developing embryo from conception to delivery - provides milk to nourish newborn infant - sexual intercourse
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Homeostasis
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refers to the existence of a stable internal environment
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Homeostatic Regulation
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the adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis - to keep the characteristics of the internal environment w/in certain limits
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Autoregulation
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(Intrinsic Regulation) occurs when a cell, a tissue, an organ, or an organ system adjusts to its activities automatically in response to some environmental change
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Extrinsic Regulation
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results from the activities of the nervous system or endocrine system, two organ systems that control or adjust to the activities of many other systems simultaneously
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Receptor
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(part of a homeostatic regulatory system) a sensor sensitive to a particular stimulus or environmental change --> thermometer of air conditioner
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Control Center
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(part of a homeostatic regulatory system) receives & processes the info. supplied by the receptor, and sends out commands --> thermostat of air conditioner
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Effector
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(part of a homeostatic regulatory system) a cell or organ that responds to the commands of the control center & whose activity either opposes or enhances the stimulus --> air conditioner turns on
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Set Point
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(part of homeostatic regulatory system) desired value --> the temperature you select on the air conditioner
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Negative Feedback
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a way for counteracting an effect --> the control of body temperature (example): (1) the muscle tissue in the walls of the blood vessels supplying the skin (2) sweat glands --> PRIMARY mechanism of homeostatic regulation; directly opposes a variation from normal limits
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Positive Feedback
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An initial stimulus produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the original change in conditions, rather than opposing it (creating a positive feedback loop) -->Seldom encounter positive feedback in your daily life, simply b/c it tends to produce extreme responses (example: thermostat in an air conditioner was accidentally connected to a heater rather than an air conditioner) --> labor contractions during birth
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Positive Feedback Loop
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In the body, ________ are typically found when a potentially dangerous or stressful process must be completed quickly before homeostasis restored
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Disease
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organ system begins to malfunction, producing a state known as illness
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State of Equilibrium
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exists when opposing processes or forces are in balance --> in body temp., the rate of heat loss equals the rate of heat production
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Dynamic Equilibrium
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each physiological system functions to maintain a state of equilibrium that keeps vital conditions within normal limits
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Superficial Anatomy
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involves locating structures on or near the body surface
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Anatomical Position
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- hands are at the sides - palms facing forward - feet are together, or slightly apart
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Anterior
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Front view
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Posterior
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Back view
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Supine
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A person lying down in the anatomical position, FACE UP
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Prone
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FACE DOWN
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Abdominopelvic Quadrants
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formed by a pair of imaginary perpendicular lines that intersect that intersect @ the umbilicus (navel) - Provides useful references for the description of aches, pains, and injuries
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Abdominopelvic Regions
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shows the relationships among quadrants, regions, and internal organs
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IMPORTANT:
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study the diagram on page 16***
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Sectional Planes
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any slice (or section) through a 3-D object that can be described
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Transverse
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(horizontal) plane that lies @ right angles to the long axis of the body, dividing it into superior & inferior portions (cut in this plane is a: transverse section, or cross section)
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Frontal Plane
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(coronal) plane that extends vertically, dividing the body into anterior and posterior portions
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Sagittal Plane
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plane paralled to the long axis of the body
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Oblique Plane
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plane that is cut diagonally
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Anterior
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front surface
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Ventral
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the belly side
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Posterior or Dorsal
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the back surface
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Cranial or Cephalic
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the head
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Superior
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above; @ a higher level (toward the head)
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Caudal
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the tail (coccyx in humans)
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Inferior
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below; at a lower level
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Medial
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toward the body's longitudinal axis; toward the midsagittal plane (MIDDLE)
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Lateral
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away from the body's longitudinal axis; away from midsagittal plane (OUTER)
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Proximal
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TOWARD an attached base (Closer to the body, or a joint)
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Distal
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AWAY from an attached base (Farther away)
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Superficial
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At, near, or relatively close to the body surface
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Deep
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Farther from the body surface
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Transverse or Horizontal
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Perpendicular to the long axis (transversely or horizontally) Separates the body into TOP & BOTTOM halves
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Sagittal
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Parallel to the long axis (sagitally) separates the RIGHT & LEFT portions
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MIdsagittal
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Middle cut (median) separates the body into RIGHT & LEFT sides
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Parasagittal
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- Parallel to medial - RIGHT & LEFT portions of UNEQUAL size
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Frontal or Coronal
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- Frontally - Separates the body into ANTERIOR & POSTERIOR portions of the body (front & back sections)
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Thoracic Cavity
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- everything deep to the chest wall - contains the lungs and heart; associated organs of the respiratory, cardiovascular, & lymphatic systems - subdivided into the left & right pleural cavities (cavity)
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Abdominopelvic Cavity
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all of the structures deep to the abdominal and pelvic walls
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Diaphragm
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a flat muscular sheet that separates the Thoracic & Abdominopelvic cavities
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Ventral Body Cavity
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- provides protection - allows organ movement - linings prevent friction --> contains organs of the respiratory, cardiovascular, digestive, urinary, & reproductive systems
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Viscera
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the internal organs that are partially or completely enclosed by the ventral body cavity
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Pleural cavities
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chest cavities that hold the lungs
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Mediastinum
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a mass of tissue that separates the pleural cavities - surrounds, stabilizes, & supports the esophagus, trachea, & thymus, as well as the major blood vessels that originate or end @ the heart
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Pleura
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serous membrane that lines a pleural cavity
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Viscreal Pleura
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covers the outer surfaces of a lung
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Parietal Pleura
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covers the mediastinal surface & the inner body wall
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Pericardial Cavity
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a smal chamber that surrounds the heart
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Pericardium
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serous membrane associated with the heart
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Visceral Pericardium
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the layer covering the the heart
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Parietal Pericardium
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opposing surface in the layer covering the heart
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Size & Shape
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During each beat, the heart changes in ___ & ______.
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Abdominal Cavity & Pelvic Cavity
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The two parts of the Abdominopelvic Cavity are:_________ & ___________
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Peritoneal Cavity
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The abdominopelvic cavity contains this: (a potential space lined by a serous membrane)
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Peritoneum
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Serous membrane that lines the peritoneal cavity
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Parietal peritoneum
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lines the inner surface of the body wall
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Visceral Peritoneum
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A narrow space containing a small amount of fluid separates the parietal peritoneum from the __________, which covers the enclosed organs.
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Peritoneum
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The __________ allows the organs of the digestive system to slide across one another w/out damage to themselves or the walls of the cavity. (Prevents friction)
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Thoracic; Abdominopelvic -- Pleural; Pleural; Mediastrium; Pericardial -- Peritoneal; Abdominal; Pelvic
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Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity: - T__________ & A___________ Cavities - Thoracic contains: Right P___ Cavity, Left P___ Cavity, M_____ & Peri_______ cavity (heart). - Abdominopelvic contains: Peri_______ Cavity, A_____ Cavity, & P______ Cavity.
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Biochemistry; biology; Chemistry; Genetics
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4 subdivisions of Physiology
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Anatomy
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Oldest medical science (1600 B.C.)
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Clinical Anatomy
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Anatomy w/ medical specialties
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Pathological Physiology
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study on the effects of diseases
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Cell
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"Cyt-"
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Microscopic Anatomy
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examines the cells & molecules
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Systemic physiology
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studies the functions of an organ system
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Atoms
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the smallest chemical units
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Moleculesa
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a group of atoms working together
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Chemical/Molecular, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organism
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List the six levels of organization from smallest to largest:
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Flat, spongy
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______, _____ bones from blood
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Contract
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Muscles are specialized to _____
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Tendons
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_______ connect muscles to bones *MUST cross a joint
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60%
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Skeletal muscles provide ____% of body heat
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Central Nervous System
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The brain & the spinal cord from the: __(CNS)___
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Nervous system
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_______: is primary control; effect is QUICK and SHORT
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Endocrine System
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- produces hormones (proteins) - effect is SLOW and LONG -- secondary control of the nervous system
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Adrenal glands
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The __________ glands are on top of the kidneys
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Blood
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______ is a connective tissue because of it's transport function
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Lymphatic vessels
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______ are very close to veins
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Tonsils
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___________ filter out microbes before they get into the organ systems
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Alveoli
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place where carbon dioxide & oxygen gas pass each other in the lungs
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Liver
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all blood through the abdominal organs goes back through the : _____
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Urethra
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voids bladder
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ions
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have a + or - charge
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7.35-7.45
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pH of blood
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Facial hair
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a secondary sex characteristic of males
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oocyte
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Female sex cell
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Autoregulation
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(intrinsic regulation) - AUTOMATIC response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some environmental change
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Extrinsic regulation
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- RESPONSES CONTROLLED by nervous & endocrine systems
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Positive Feedback
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A ____________ feedback system requires an external break NORMAL RANGE IS LOST
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Negative Feedback
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- major way we control things - body brought back into homeostasis - effector is opposite of the stimulus - NORMAL RANGE IS ACHIEVED
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Renal Anatomy
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anatomy of the kidneys / renal system
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visceral pericardium
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What is the name of the serous membrane that covers the surface of the heart?
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to respond to the output of the control center
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What is the role of the effector in homeostatic regulation?
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cervicis
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In descriptions of the superficial anatomy of the human body, the neck is the _________.
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supine
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When a person is lying down face up in the anatomical position, the individual is said to be ________.
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pleural and pericardial cavities
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The subdivisions of the thoracic body cavity are the ________.
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thoracic
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The heart and the lungs are located in the _____ cavity.
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autoregulation
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What is the term for the homeostatic regulation mechanism in which a cell, tissue, organ, or organ system adjusts its activities without input from the nervous or endocrine system in response to an environmental change?
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anterior, dorsal, cephalic, caudal
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Match the following sequence to the equivalent sequence of anatomical directions: ventral, posterior, superior, inferior.
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cardiovascular system
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The organ system responsible for internal distribution of oxygen and carbon dioxide is the ________.
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posterior
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The spinal cord is __________ to the esophagus.
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he knee is proximal to the ________.
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The knee is proximal to the ________.
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pelvic cavity
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In which body cavity are the female reproductive organs located?
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Right & Left Pleural Cavities
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Contain the lungs
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Mediastinum
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-upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus -lower portion contains pericardial cavity
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Pericardial Cavity
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where the heart is located
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Essential Functions of Body Cavities
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-protect organs from accidental shocks -permit changes in size and shape of internal organs
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Ventral Body Cavity
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-divided by the diaphragm -contains the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities
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Abdominopelvic Cavity
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-cavity that consists of the abdominal and pelvic cavitites -has peritoneal cavity (chamber in the ___________ _______ cavity)
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Peritoneal Cavity
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-chamber within abdominopelvic cavity
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Parietal Peritoneum
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lines the internal body wall (in the peritoneal cavity)
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Visceral Peritoneum
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covers the organs (in the peritoneal cavity)
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Abdominal Cavity
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-superior (above) portion of the Abdominopelvic cavity -from the diaphragm to the top of the pelvic bones -contains DIGESTIVE ORGANS -Retroperitoneal space
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Retroperitoneal Space
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-the area (space) POSTERIOR to the PERITONEUM -ANTERIOR to the MUSCULAR BODY WALL -contains PANCREAS, KIDNEYS, URETERS, and parts of the DIGETIVE TRACT
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Pelvic Cavity
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-inferior (below) portion of the Abdominopelvic cavity -within the pelvic bones -contains REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS, RECTUM, & BLADDER
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Organelles
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inclusions inside of a cell
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Skin
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-the largest organ -outer layer is keratinized
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Integumentary System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Skin, Hair, Sweat Glands, Nails Functions: Protects against environmental hazards, Helps regulate boy temp., Provides sensory info.
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Skeletal System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Bones, Cartilages, Associated Ligaments, Bone Marrow Functions: Provides support and protection for other tissues, Stores calcium/other minerals, Forms blood cells (by flat, spongy bone)
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Muscular System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Skeletal muscles & associated ligaments Functions: Provides movement, Provides protection and support for other tissues, Generates heat that maintains body temp.
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60%
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Skeletal muscles provide about _____% of body heat
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Nervous System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Brain, Spinal Cord, Peripheral Nerves, Sense Organs Functions: Directs immediate responses to stimuli, Coordniates or moderates activities of other organ systems, Provides and interprets sensory info. about external (& internal) conditions ** System is PRIMARY CONTROL of the Central Nervous System (?); Effect is QUICK & SHORT
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Endocrine System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Pituitary Gland, Pancreas, Gonads, Endocrine tissues in other systems, Thyroid Gland, Adrenal Glands Functions: Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems, Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body, & Controls many structural and functional changes during development *PRODUCES HORMONES (proteins) ** System is SECONDARY CONTROL of the Central Nervous System (?); Effect is SLOW & LONG
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Cardiovascular System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Heart, Blood (connective tissue b/c of it's transport), Blood Vessels Functions: Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen and carbon dioxide; Distibutes heat and assists in control of body temperature
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Lymphatic System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Spleen, Thymus, Lymphatic vessels (very close to veins), Lymp nodes, Tonsils (filter microbes before they get into different systems) Functions: Defends against infection and disease; Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream
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Respiratory System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Nasal Cavities, Sinuses, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Lungs, Alveoli Functions: Delivers air to a;veoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs); Provides oxygen to bloodstream; Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream; PRODUCES SOUND for COMMUNICATION
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Digestive System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Teeth, Tongue, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, Liver (all blood through abdominal organs go back through the liver), Gallbladder, Pancreas Functions: Processes and digests food; Absorbs and conserves water; Absorbs nutrients; Stores energy reserves
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Urinary System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary Bladder, Urethra (voids bladder) Functions: Excretes waste products from the blood; Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced; Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination; Regulates BLOOD ION (+ or - charge)CONCENTRATIONS and pH (7.35-7.45)
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Male Reproductive System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Testes (produce sperm), Epididymides, Ductus deferentia, Seminal vesicles, Prostate gland, Penis, Scrotum Functions: Produces male sex cells (sperm), suspending fluids, and hormones; Sexual intercourse
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Female Reproductive System
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(Organ System) Major Organs: Ovaries, Uterine tubes, Uterus, Vagina, Labia, Clitoris, Mammary glands Functions: Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones; Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery; Provides milk to nourish newborn infant; Sexual intercourse
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Extrinisic Regulation
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Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems (Homeostasis)
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Autoregulation (Intrinsic Regulation)
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automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some environmental change
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Receptor
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(in Homeostasis) receives the stimulus
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Control Center
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(in Homeostasis) Processes the signal and sends instructions
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Effector
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(in Homeostasis) Carries out instructions
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Serous Membranes
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-Lines the body cavities and cover organs -Consists of visceral and parietal layer
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Parietal Layer
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(serous membrane) lines the cavity
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Visceral Layer
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(serous membrane) covers the organ --> reduces friction
