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sociology

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~Systematic study of human society ~a social science ~interested in human interactions

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societies

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~groups of people who share a common culture ~intricately structured arrangements of relationships among people

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culture

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~the values the members of the group hold (beliefs), ~the norms they follow (behaviors), and ~the material goods they create (products)

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Not everyone in a ______ shares the same _________.

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society; culture

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social structures

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~made of arrangement between people within a society (patterns and behaviors characteristics of participants) ~results of relationships produce behavior that makes up social structures

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Sudhir Venkatesh

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Off the Books: The Underground Economy of the Urban Poor

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social sciences

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disciplines that study human social behavior or institutions and the functions of human society in a scientific manner

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social phenomena

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observable facts or events that involve human society

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anthropology vs. sociology

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~comparative study of past and present cultures versus ~group behavior in complex, or more advanced, societies

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psychology vs. sociology

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~focuses on individual behavior rather than on group behavior ~draws more heavily on the tools of the natural sciences to gather and analyze information ~differences in emphasis and methods of analysis ~overlap with social psychology, the study of how the social environment affects an individual's behavior and personality

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economics vs. sociology

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~Analyzing the choices people make in an effort to satisfy their needs and wants ~study the processes by which goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed ~effect of economic factors on various groups in society has attracted the attention of sociologists since the earliest days of the discipline (impact of distribution)

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political science vs. sociology

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~examination of the principles, organization, and operation of government is the focus ~Areas of mutual interest include voting patterns, the concentration of political power, and the formation of politically based groups.

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history

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~study of past events in human societies ~helps explain present phenomena

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sociological imagination

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~enables the sociologist to see the broad social issues behind individual problems while appreciating that those broad social issues affect the lives of individuals ~ moves the sociologist beyond the private concerns of the unemployed individual to the see the social phenomenon of unemployment ~allows the sociologist to understand unemployment in terms of the lives of the unemployed

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sociological perspective

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~look at social life in a scientific, systematic way rather than depending on common-sense explanations usually found in the media ~look beyond commonly held beliefs to the hidden meanings behind human actions ~try to find patterns ~all people are social beings ~your behavior is influenced by social factors and that you have learned your behavior from others ~there are many different perceptions of social reality ~acceptable balance between your personal desires and the demands of your social environment

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acceptable balance between your personal desires and the demands of your social environment

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If you always do what you want to do, you are likely to conflict with others a great deal of the time. On the other hand, if you always do what others want, you will not grow as an individual.

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C. Wright Mills

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described the sociological imagination as "the capacity to range from the most impersonal and remote [topics] to the most intimate features of the human self—and to see the relations between the two."

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Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

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~In the late 1800s the city of London was plagued with poverty. Estimates suggested that as much as one third of the population of Britain's capital were destitute ~for society to reach its perfect state, all that was weak and not of use had to be discarded or allowed to fall away—a theory he called "survival of the fittest." ~adopted a biological model of society (Like a living organism, society is a set of interdependent parts that work together to maintain the system over time.) ~influenced by the views of Charles Darwin ~considered social change and unrest to be natural occurrences during a society's evolution toward stability and perfection (no steps should be taken to correct social ills) ~only fittest societies would survive -- social Darwinism

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Development of sociology

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~did not develop until the 1800s primarily in France, Germany, and Britain ~rapid social and political changes that took place in Europe as a result of the Industrial Revolution were of primary importance ~many people found it difficult to adapt to the impersonal nature of urban life ~Individual liberty and individual rights became the focus of a wide variety of political movements and gave rise to the American and French Revolutions ~caused some scholars to question the traditional explanations of life ~social world was based on a set of basic principles that could be studied and analyzed through the use of scientific research methods

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Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

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~founder of sociology as a distinct subject; coined the term sociology to describe the study of society ~apply the methods of the physical sciences to the study of social life ~intrigued by the causes and consequences of the French Revolution ~social statics, hold society together ~society changes through definite processes, which he called social dynamics ~The basic principles of these two social forces, Comte believed, could be uncovered through the methods of scientific research and used to reform society ~most of his ideas regarding society have been refuted

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Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)

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~born to a middle class family; she received a good education ~after father died, she was forced to support herself ~By the 1830s, she was a respected author in Britain ~published Society in America in 1837 (a review of how well the United States lived up to its promise of democracy; marriage, the family, race relations, education, and religion) ~detached style of reporting also set the standard for objectivity in sociological research (initially ignored) ~In 1853 she published a translation of Comte's Positive Philosophy (enormous influence on scholars in Britain and the United States) ~scholars should advocate change to solve the problems that they studied (women's rights, religious tolerance and the end of slavery)

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Karl Marx (1818-1883)

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~middle-class parents in a part of Prussia that is now Germany ~unable to get a teaching position because of his political views ~writer and editor for a radical newspaper (closed) ~moved to the more liberal atmosphere of Paris (expelled) ~finally settled in London ~structure of a society is influenced by how its economy is organized ~the bourgeoisie (production), or capitalists, and the proletariat, or workers (labor) ~victorious workers would build a classless society in which each citizen would contribute "according to his ability" and would be rewarded "according to his needs" ~conflict theory

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Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)

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~developed the country's first university sociology course at the University of Bordeaux in France ~first to systematically apply the methods of science to the study of society ~viewed the role of interdependent people/situations in terms of their functions ~interested in the function of religion in maintaining social order, because he believed that shared beliefs and values were the glue that held society together ~sociologists should only study features of society that are directly observable (can be tested by applying the scientific tool of statistical analysis) ~1897 study, Suicide, examined suicide rates in several European countries (used scientific method)

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function

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consequence that an element of society produces for the maintenance of its social system

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Max Weber (1864-1920)

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~important writings in University of Heidelberg ~interested in separate groups within society rather than in society as a whole ~focused more on the effect of society on the individual ~go beyond studying what can be directly observed and attempt to uncover people's feelings and thoughts ~employed the concept of ideal type and Verstehen in much of his work

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Verstehen

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an attempt to understand the meanings individuals attach to their actions (one puts oneself in the place of others and tries to see situations through their eyes)

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ideal type

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a description comprised of the essential characteristics of a feature of society (examining many different examples of the feature and then by deducing its essential characteristics)

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Chicago School

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~establishment of a sociology department at the University of Chicago in late 1800s ~adopted a very distinctive style of thinking about society ~interested in group interactions and the impact of society on individual development ~led to the development of the interactionist perspective of sociology (Horton Cooley and George Herbert Mead) ~study of society should be accompanied by an effort to find practical solutions to social problems (Jane Addams)

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Jane Addams (1860-1935)

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~in London saw Toynbee Hall, a settlement house that provided assistance for the poor -- wanted for America ~set up Hull House on the West Side of Chicago (in 1889; offered welfare, educational, and recreational services for poor residents of the neighborhood) ~ if she wanted to solve the problems of the poor, she needed to know the exact nature of those problems ~in 1895: Hull House Maps and Papers, the study covered such subjects as wage levels, sweatshops, child labor, the immigrant experience, and living conditions in poverty-stricken neighborhoods ~first serious discussion of the effects of two major social forces—industrialization and urbanization

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W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963)

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~mixing social analysis with social reform ~first African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard (worked with Weber) ~The Philadelphia Negro in 1899 (race was an issue that needed to be addressed) ~among the first empirical community studies undertaken in the United State ~ his findings—and remedies—ran counter to the accepted views on race; remained unrecognized

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empirical

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based on experiment or observation

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theory

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~a systematic explanation of the relationship among phenomena ~provide guidance for sociologists in their work and help them to interpret their findings

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theoretical perspective

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~a general set of assumptions about the nature of phenomena ~outlines certain assumptions about the nature of social life

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functionalist perspective

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~views society as a set of interrelated parts that work together to produce a stable social system (little details) ~ideas of Comte, Spencer, and Durkheim ~most people agree on what is best for society and work together to ensure that the social system runs smoothly (family, religion, education, and the economy)

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dysfunction

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~negative consequence an element has for the stability of the social system ~functionalist perspective ~ to reestablish social stability the various elements of society must adapt and adjust

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manifest function

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~an intended and recognized consequence of some element of society ~functionalist perspective

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latent function

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~an unintended and unrecognized consequence of some element of society

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conflict perspective

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~focuses on those forces in society that promote competition and change (Karl Marx) ~interested in how those who possess more power in society exercise control over those with less power in society ~interested in nonviolent competition between various groups in society ~competition over scarce resources is at the basis of social conflict (one gets control, other side revolts) ~social change as an inevitable feature of our society

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feminist perspective

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~theoretical perspective that involves viewing society as a system of gender inequality in which men dominate women ~conflict perspective ~created by society and is not the result of biology, reinforced by institutions ~the experience of women should be central to the study of social life; bring about social change to end gender inequality

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interactionist perspective

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~focuses on how individuals interact with one another in society (Mark Weber) -- society as a whole ~interested in the ways in which individuals respond to one another in everyday situations ~interested in the meanings that individuals attach to their own actions and to the actions of others ~ child development, relationships within small groups, and mate selection

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symbol

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~anything that stands for something else and has a shared meaning attached to it, such as language, gestures, images, sounds, physical objects, events, and elements of the natural world that convey a particular meaning ~members of society must agree on the meaning that is attached to it ~interactionist perspective

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symbolic interaction

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~interaction among people that takes place through the use of symbols ~meaning, language, and thought ~individual responds to people and things based on the meanings he or she gives to those people or thing ~meanings arise out of the social interaction, through the vehicle of language ~individual adjusts and modifies these meanings through thought ~individuals constantly defining and interpreting each other's actions

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macrosociology

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~level of analysis that involves the study of large-scale systems or society as a whole ~employed by the functionalist and conflict perspectives ~large-scale systems or society as whole ~analysis of long-term processes, such as industrialization

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microsociology

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~level of analysis that involves looking at small-scale settings and everyday interaction among group members ~employed by the interactionist perspective ~involves looking at small-group settings and the everyday face-to-face interactions among group members ~used to measure the impact of teacher expectations on student academic performance

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globalization

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~the development of economic, political, and social relationships that stretch worldwide ~look at social life not only in terms of their own society but also in a global context

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scientific method

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~an objective, logical, and systematic way of collecting empirical data and arriving at reasoned conclusions ~Researchers who employ it (1) try to prevent their own notions, values, and biases from interfering in the research process; (2) use careful and correct reasoning in drawing conclusions from their data; and (3) carry out research in a thoughtful, organized, and methodical manner. ~ steps include defining the problem, reviewing the literature, forming a hypothesis, choosing a research design, collecting the data, analyzing the data, and presenting conclusions

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1. Defining the Problem

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~selecting a topic (phenomena) for study ~developing operational definitions of key concepts (measurable characteristics)

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2. Reviewing the Literature

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~review the published reports of studies that have a bearing on their research interests ~provides researchers with valuable insights that help guide their work, it also prevents the unnecessary duplication of research efforts

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3. Forming a Hypothesis

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~develop testable hypotheses

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hypothesis

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a statement that predicts the relationship between two or more variables

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4. Choosing a Research Design

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~plan for collecting, analyzing, and evaluating data ~four categories: surveys, experiments, observational studies, and the analysis of existing sources ~employ some form of statistical analysis to evaluate their data

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5. Collecting the Data

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~follow the design in collecting their data ~information must be carefully recorded

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6. Analyzing the Data

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~be careful to maintain their objectivity and not read more into the data than is there ~determine whether the data support the research hypotheses

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7. Presenting Conclusions

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~drawing conclusions from the data and presenting the research findings to others ~add to the body of sociological knowledge ~make it possible for other sociologists to evaluate the data and the research process (replicate the research)

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variable

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~a characteristic that can differ from one individual, group, or situation to another in a measurable way ~Sociologists study cause and effect by examining the relationships among them ~A causal relationship exists when a change in one causes a change in another

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correlation

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~situation that exists when a change in one variable is regularly associated with a change in another variable (may not be direct cause) ~both positive and negative

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spurious correlation

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~variables appear to be related but actually are being affected by the existence of a third variable ~hospitalization and death (third variable is serious illness)

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controls

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~ ways of excluding the possibility that outside variables are affecting the relationship between the two variables under investigation ~determine whether variables are causally related, correlated, or spuriously correlated through the use of controls

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basic research methods

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the analysis of existing sources using techniques such as the historical method and content analysis, observational studies, and experiments

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survey

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~research method that allows data on attitudes and opinions to be collected from large numbers of people ~questionnaires and interviews ~only uses a sample representative of population (often random)

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sample

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a small but representative selection of people studied in a survey or other research project

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Analysis of Existing Sources

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~historical method of content analysis

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historical method

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~ examining any materials from the past that contain information of sociological interest

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content analysis

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~research method used to analyze existing sources that involves counting the number of times a particular word, phrase, idea, event, symbol, or other element appears in a given context

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Observational Studies

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~observe the behavior of individuals and groups in actual social settings ~Data can be collected through detached observation or through participant observation

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detached observation

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~researchers observe the situation under study from a distance ~behavior unaffected, but important points often missed

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participant observation

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~research method in which researchers become directly involved in the situation under investigation ~sometimes researchers remain anonymous

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case study

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~an intensive analysis of a person, group, event, or problem ~to rely on observational techniques ~researchers often use survey methods and the analysis of existing source materials in their investigations ~ useful in analyzing infrequent or temporary events such as riots or natural disasters -- examine real-life situations

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experiment

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a research method in which data is gathered under controlled conditions set by the researcher ~ experimental group is exposed to the independent variable, while the control group is not (so experiment's results are caused by the independent variable, not by something else) ~all other conditions are the same for both groups ~laboratory atmosphere may impede accuracy

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statistical analysis

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a research method that entails analyzing data that have already been collected to determine the strength of the relationship that may exist between two or more variables ~use the mode, the mean, and the median ~mean is the measure that people most often think of when they think of averages ~median is the number that divides the range of data into two equal parts

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ethics

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rules and standards of behavior governing the conduct of a person or group ~American Sociological Association (ASA), the professional organization of sociologists, has established specific ethical guidelines ~focus on the issues of confidentiality, deception, and informed consent ~sociologists accept the use of deception when the potential benefits of the research outweigh the potential harm ~to provide legal protection, subjects agree to participate only after they have been given an explanation of the research

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society

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groups of people who share a common culture

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