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Any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice.

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Learning

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Gestalt Contiguity- things that occur close in time to one another are grouped together (rules of language syntax). When one event precedes another, we associate one event with the other (thunder, lightning).

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Associative Learning

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Unconditioned Stimulus: unlearned, innate. Unconditioned Response: automatic, involuntary. Pavlov example: food (UCS) and drooling (UCR). No learning needed for dog to drool when it sees food.

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Classical Conditioning (UCS and UCR)

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Conditioned Stimulus: learned (starts off as neutral). Conditioned Response: learned (not as strong as UCR). Food is paired with a bell: Bell (CS) and drooling (CR).

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Classical Conditioning (CS and CR)

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1. Neutral stimulus needs to come before the UCS. 2. Time between the two stimuli should be close (about half a second to 5 seconds apart is ideal). 3. Pairing needs to occur several times, often many. 4. The CS usually needs to be distinctive or stand out from other competing stimuli.

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4 Basic Principles of Acquisition in Classical Conditioning

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Disappearance of a previously learned behavior when the behavior is not reinforced.

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Extinction

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When an Unconditioned Stimulus does not follow a Conditioned Stimulus, a Conditioned Response starts to decrease, and at some point completely diminishes.

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Respondent Extinction

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Sudden and temporary increase in behavior that was previously reinforced at the beginning of extinction. Can result in aggressive behavior or other attempts to obtain the reinforcer.

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Extinction Burst

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After a rest period, an extinguished Conditioned Response spontaneously recovers.

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Spontaneous Recovery

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Tendency to respond to stimuli similar to CS. What we learn in one specific situation or with one specific stimulus transfers to a different situation. The more similar the new stimulus is to the original CS, the greater the likelihood of generalization. Example: Little Albert

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Stimulus Generalization

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When an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.

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Stimulus Discrimination

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Classical conditioning term, refers to when a stimulus that was previously neutral (clapping) is paired with a Conditioned Stimulus (bell with food to produce salivating) to produce the same conditioned response as the Conditioned Stimulus.

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Higher Order Stimulus

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Classical conditioning in which the Unconditioned Response is an emotional response (fear). Fear Conditioning- the CS (neutral bell) becomes associated with a fearful CR. May lead to phobias (irrational fear responses).

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Conditioned Emotional Response (Learning Phobia)

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Becoming classically conditioned by watching someone else respond to a stimulus.

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Vicarious Conditioning

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Systematic Desensitization Aversion therapy

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Applications of Classical Conditioning

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Classical conditioning occurred because the Conditioned Stimulus became a substitute for the Unconditioned Stimulus by being paired closely together.

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Stimulus Substitution (Pavlov)

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Modern theory in which classical conditioning is seen to occur because the Conditioned Stimulus provides information or a prediction about the coming of the Unconditioned Stimulus. Tone onset and shock vs. tone ending and shock.

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Cognitive Perspective (Rescorla)

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Changes in the liking of a stimulus that result from pairing that stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli.

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Evaluative Conditioning

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Drug (UCS), user's body attempts to counteract effects of the drug (UCR). Setting (neutral) gets paired with drug (UCS) and setting becoming a CS. Setting (CS) leads to user's body trying to counteract drug (CR).

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Classical Conditioning and Drug Overdose

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CS elicits physiological and behavioral changes that are opposite to/compensate for the drug effects.

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What happens when drugs show the development of tolerance?

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Albert Bandura conducted a study to investigate if social behaviors (aggression) can be acquired by observation and imitation. Children's aggressiveness was monitored before and after being exposed to aggressive behavior. Bandura found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in physically aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model.

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Bobo Doll Experiment

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Attention: Observer must pay attention to the model's behavior and its consequences. Memory: Observer must be able to retain memory of what was done. May not have the occasion to use an observed behavior right away; therefore, must store a mental representation of it (including its steps). Imitation: The learner must be capable of reproducing the model's behavior. Motivation: The learner must have the desire or motivation to perform the behavior.

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Observational Learning

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The learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses.

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Operant Conditioning

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"Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation."

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Thorndike's Law of Effect

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Any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again.

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Reinforcement

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Primary: any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need (hunger, thirst, touch). Secondary: any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer (praise, tokens, gold stars).

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Primary Reinforcer vs. Secondary Reinforcer

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Immediate reinforcement occurs immediately after desired or undesired behavior occurs. This type of reinforcement has the quickest effect in controlling behavior because it forms a stronger relationship between stimulus and response. The longer the delay, the less likely the learning.

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Immediate vs. Delayed Reinforcers

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Reinforcement of a response by the addition or experience of a pleasurable stimulus. Stickers for engaging in boring psychological testing, clicker credit for attendance.

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Positive Reinforcement

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Reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. Taking aspirin for a headache is negatively reinforced (removal of headache). Using drugs when experiencing withdrawal symptoms. Cleaning a house to get rid of a mess.

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Negative Reinforcement

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Deliver reinforcement immediately after the behavior. Deliver reinforcement continuously after the behavior (at least initially). Reinforce only the desired behavior.

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How to Reinforce Successfully

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Any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again. Best when applied immediately so that relationship between unwanted behavior and punishment is clear. Should be consistent (always follow though, similar intensity each time). Immediate effect of suppressing behavior (explains negative reinforcement for parent). Does not teach appropriate behavior. Can lead to negative emotions (anxiety).

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Punishment

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Punishment of a response by addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus. Spanking a misbehaving child, getting a speeding ticket.

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Punishment by Application (Positive Punishment)

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Punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus. Putting a child in time out, having to pay a financial penalty for turning in a bill late.

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Punishment by Removal (Negative Punishment)

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A breakdown in learning ability caused by repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive event. The tendency to fail to try or act in a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past. Happens when the learner has no control over when punishment is given.

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Learned Helplessness

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Continuous vs. partial Is the availability of reinforcement predictable? Fixed vs. Variable Is the availability of reinforcement related to the number of responses or the passage of time? Ratio vs. Interval

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Schedules of Reinforcement

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Number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same (Airlines)

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Fixed Ratio

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Interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same (pay day, baking)

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Fixed Interval

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Schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event (Google)

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Variable Ratio

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The interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event (Email)

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Variable Interval

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Using operant conditioning to shape complex behavior. The reinforcement of simple steps in behavior through successive approximations that lead to a desired, more complex behavior (dancing dog)

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Shaping

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Positively reinforcing numerous small steps of a more complex behavior in sequence in order to teach said complex behavior.

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Successive Approximation

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The application of operant conditioning (and sometimes classical conditioning) techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior. Token economy- desired behavior rewarded with tokens that can be exchanged for something you want.

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Behavior Modification

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Modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses shaping techniques to mold a desired behavior or response

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Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

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In the early days of learning, researchers' focus was on behavior. In the 1950s- and more intensely in the 1960s- many psychologists were becoming aware that cognition, the mental events that take place inside a person's mind while behaving, could no longer be ignored.

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Cognitive Learning Theory

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Learning that is not immediately acted upon or expressed. Edward Tolman investigated this by building mazes for rats.

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Latent Learning

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preparing the training area

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In toilet training a cat, "Lid Up, Seat Down" is known in operant conditioning as:

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it is always present somewhere in memory.

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Research suggests that once people learn something:

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a conditioned stimulus

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When a previously neutral stimulus, through repeated pairing with the unconditioned stimulus, begins to cause the same kind of reflexive response, the neutral stimulus has become:

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stimulus generalization

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Four-year-old Joshua reacts with anxiety to the sound of thunder. A chair slides across the wooden floor, making a sound similar to thunder. Joshua reacts with some slight anxiety. This is an example of:

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unconditioned stimulus

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Without the _____, higher-order conditioning would be difficult to maintain and would gradually fade away.

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vicarious conditioning

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When children witness other children cry when getting a vaccination, and the witnesses then cry before the needle even touches them, it is an example of:

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whether the subject is responding to a UCS or a CS.

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In classical conditioning, the actual response involved in a CR and a UCR are the same. (For example, it might be salivation in both cases.) However, what makes that response (salivation) considered conditioned or unconditioned depends on:

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promise her an ice cream cone when she sings

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Aida loves to sing for her family and friends but is extremely shy. In order to encourage Aida to sing again, what is a primary reinforcement that Aida's mom might use?

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punishment by removal

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Time-out is an example of ______.

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variable ratio

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Tamar just can't seem to get away from the slot machines. She has no idea how many times she has to pull the levers to win money, but she's aware that at some point, she's likely to win. What schedule of reinforcement is being used in this example?

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Learning

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Ama slows down her car after seeing a police officer on the side of the road. What does this demonstrate?

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Lan is being positively reinforced for playing with the noisemaker. Kino is being negatively reinforced for giving Lan a lollipop.

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Kino's parents gave her four-year-old son, Lan, a noisemaker to celebrate his birthday. Since receiving the gift, Lan has played with his noisemaker everyday. Desperate for some peace and quiet, Kino gives Lan a lollipop, which takes Lan's attention away from the toy and gives Kino some peace and quiet. However, once the lollipop is gone, Lan returns to his noisemaker. Kino gives Lan another lollipop. In this example, what kind of reinforcement process is taking place?

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depression

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Seligman connects learned helplessness to:

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cannot be gained through trial-and-error learning alone.

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Köhler determined that insight:

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Martin Seligman

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Who believed that cognition was an important part of behavior?

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a chimp fitting one stick into another stick to reach out of his cage for a banana.

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Kohler's chimpanzee experiment involved:

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latent learning

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The learning/performance distinction is a kind of:

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imitation

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A five-year old watches his father dunk a basketball. Since the child is unable to reach the basket in the way his father can, the child cannot learn this behavior by observing because he cannot accomplish the step of:

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possible links between children's exposure to violence on television and aggressive behavior toward others.

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Bandura conducted some of his research to study:

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imitate many of the violent actions they witnessed on TV.

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Sammy and his friends are watching animated fight scenes on television. Based on Bandura's findings in the Bobo doll experiment, it seems likely that later, at play, Sammy and his friends will:

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discriminative stimulus

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A police car is a _____ for slowing down.

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teaching rats to learn how to obtain food

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One of B. F. Skinner's famous experiments involved:

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will only temporarily suppress a behavior.

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Most of the time, punishment:

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punishment by application

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Anna's mother scolds her for lying. Anna's mother is using:

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primary reinforcers

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The behavior of infants and animals can be easily reinforced using:

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