Biology Major Field Test Study Set – Flashcards
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"4 Biomolecules and Monomers
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Protein (amino acids) Carbohydrates (simple sugars) Lipids (glycerol and fatty acids) Nuclei acids (nucleotides)"
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dipeptides
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two amino acids bonded together
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what is the general fatty acid formula
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CH3(CH2)nCOOH where n= an even number between 12 and 24
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explain identifying saturated vs. unsaturated fats
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saturated: only single bonds in hydrocarbon chain... unsaturated: one or more double bonds
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glycerides
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glycerol and 3 fatty acids
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Levels of Protein Structure
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1. order of amino acids 2. alpha-helices or beta-pleated sheets 3. bonding b/w a.a. side chains 4. multi-subunit structure
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nucleotide is composed of
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phosphate group; sugar group; nitrogenous base
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Vmax
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maximum reaction rate at which point substrate is saturated with enzyme
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Feedback Inhibition
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end-product of enzyme catalyzed rxn. blocks original enz.
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Competitive Inhibition
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molecules compete with substrate for enzyme's active sites
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irreversible inhibitors
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chemically and covalently bind to active site; rendering it permanently inactive
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psuedoirreversible inhibitors
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extremely high affinities for active site; hard to displace
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noncompetitive inhibitors
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do not compete for active site but act elsewhere on enz.; altering 3D shape
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photosynthesis
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anabolic process that converts sunlight into energy stored in the phosphate bonds of ATP, then more permanently stored in bonds of organic carbon compounds
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electron transport chain
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series of carrier molecules on the inner mitochondrial membrane which pass electrons through enzymes that pump protons to one side of the membrane, creating a proton gradient
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chemiosmosis
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the use of a gradient, such as a proton gradient, to generate energy. The ATP synthase enzyme uses the kinetic movement of protons down the gradient to store energy by converting ADP to ATP
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ATP
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Adenosine tri phosphate, a modified nucleotide that stores energy in it's phosphate bonds.
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fermentation
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glycolysis and the additional steps leading to the formation of ethanol or lactic acid, to make ATP. It does not include the Kreb's cycle (producing CO2) or the ETC.
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occluding/tight junctions
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nothing can diffuse between cells or past junction
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anchoring junctions
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physical joining so cells do not shear away
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communicating junctions
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gap junctions are formed by proteins called connexins that allow for undisrupted and very fast signal transmission
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plasmodesmata
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plant cells' equivalent of gap junctions
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G-actin
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globular monomer
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F-actin
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long filament
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microtubules
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cellular conveyor belts
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microtubule assoc. proteins
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attach to tubulin on one end and cargo on the other dyneins: pull to center kinesins: outside"
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9+2 structure
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9 prs microtubules surrounding 2 central microtubules for stability (structure of cilia&flagella)
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basal bodies
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microtubule triplets; anchor cilia/flagella; foundation for new microtubules
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centrioles
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anchor microtubules growing into mitotic spindle
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intermediate filaments
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thin fibers wound together in tight coils; membrane stability
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proto-oncogenes
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normal genes involved in control of cell growth/division
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oncogenes
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mutations occur and no longer maintain control over a particular aspect of growth
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density-dependent inhibition
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normal cells able to suppress growth when near other cells
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alleles
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different forms of a gene
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homozygous/heterozygous
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homo: 2 copies of same allele; hetero: one dom.; one rec.
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dominance
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only one dom. needed for phenotype to be present
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segregation
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2 alleles for given trait seperate during meiosis
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independent assortment
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genes for one trait separate independent of genes for another trait
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incomplete dominance
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single dom. allele cannot produce full phenotype; see blending
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codominance
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2 different alleles both show up in phenotype
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epistasis
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second gene determines if first gene is expressed or not
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mitochondrial inheritance
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all genes present in mitochondria come from mother
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genomic imprinting
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certain alleles are encoded differently depended on which parent allele comes from
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triple repeat extension
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number of repeats increases with each generation
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transformation
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bacteria picks up free DNA
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conjugation
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cytoplasmic extensions between bacterial cells allow movement of plasmids
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transduction
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viruses infect bacterial cells
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nucleosomes
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spools of DNA wrapped around histone proteins
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exons
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coding sequences of DNA
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introns
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non-coding sequences of DNA
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spliceosome
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lg ribonucleotide that forms during excision of introns and splicing of exons
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transposons
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pieces of DNA that can move from place to place within organism's genome
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enhancers
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non-coding regions of DNA that influence the activation of genes
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methylation
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DNA is subject to addition of CH3 to nitrogenous bases; can't be transcribed
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pyrimidine bases
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C and T; single rings of nitrogen and carbon
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purine bases
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G and A; two fused rings of nitrogen and carbon
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Okasaki fragments
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sm. fragments of DNA that lagging strand is built out of as enzyme has to jump ahead and work backwards to go in 5 to 3 direction
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endonucleases
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cleave out and replace damaged DNA in middle of strands
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thymine dimers
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adj. T molecules bond covalently due to UV energy
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primase
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builds RNA primer for DNA replication
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helicase
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enzyme that unwinds DNA
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topoisomerases
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regulate supercoiling of DNA into chromosomes
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DNA ligase
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connects Okasaki fragments left over from discont. syn. on lagging strand of DNA
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temperate phage
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bacteriophage that has been integrated into host DNA
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viroid
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viruslike particles composed of single molecule of circ. RNA
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prions
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infectious pieces of protein
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lysozome
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enz. that can destroy bacterial cell walls and some viral capsules (present in saliva; tears; mucous)
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monocytes
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macrophages circ. in blood
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polyclonal
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antibodies that arise in natural course of fighting infection; produced by several diff clones of B cells and cover wide range of specicity
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monoclonal
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antibodies arising from a single clone (a single B cell that has rapidly divided into identical B cells)
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lag period
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period after exposure to antigen before helpful levels of antibodies are made by B cells
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tissue-specific promoters
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guarantee expression of particular gene in only one type of tissue
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restriction enzymes
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recognize specific DNA sequences and cleave them
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Sanger method
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DNA sequencing
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Southern blot
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used to probe DNA for certain sequences
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RFLP
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restriction fragment length polymorphisms; diff in length of fragments made by restriction enz digestion of 2 DNA samples
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ruminants
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variations in: enlarged multichambered stomachs; length of alimentary canal; shape of teeth
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trachae
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resp tubules that make up anthropod resp sys. open to outside through spiracles
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cloaca
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opening found at tail end of reptiles used for excretion and resp
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homeotherms
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maintain nearly constant body temp even as surroundings change (endotherms)
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air sacs
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allow fresh air to flow through lungs even during exhalation; present in birds; even in bones for better flight
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lamellae
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platelike structures on filaments of gill arches where O2 diffusion occurs in fish
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countercurrent exchange
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blood flows opposite of O2 source (fish)
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opercula
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gill coverings
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Bohr Effect
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O2 dissociation curve shifts right as pH drops; ev adaptation; hgb looses O2 more quickly in acidic environ. (to help O2 get into cells)
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myoglobin
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resp pigment found in muscle cells and where O2 used most quickly; higher O2 affinity
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protonephridia
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series of tubes in flatworms to tx excretory waste through; end in hollow bulbs (flame cells)
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nephridia
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specialized tubes to excrete mineral salts and urea in annelid worms
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Malphhigian tubes
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outfoldings of digestive tract in the midgut of insects for absorption
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ectotherms
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coldblooded; not capable of maintaining constant int temp (reptiles; amphibians etc.)
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established/innate reflex
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unconditioned stim and response it naturally elicits
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neutral stimulus
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stim that will not by itself elicit a response
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display
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innate behavior that has evolved as a signal for comm b/w members of same sp.
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interoceptors
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monitor aspects of int environ
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proprioceptors
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transmit info regarding position of body in space
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exteroreceptors
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sense things in ext environ
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endolymph
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fluid that fills 3 semicirc canals of ear
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motor end plate
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special region where motor nerve synapses on a muscle
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hydrostatic skeleton
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fluid skeleton; fluid held under pressure within closed body cavity (earthworm)
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exoskeleton
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hard shell or casing deposited on the surface of an organism (insects)
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endoskeleton
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internal sys of bones and cartilage that support surrounding soft tissues (vertebrates)
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chemotaxis
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movement in a direction based on a gradient of a diffusible chem that is sensed by smell (WBCs)
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monozygotic twins
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identical; single zygote splits into 2 embryos
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dizygotic twins
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two ova released in one ovarian cycle and are fertilized by 2 diff sperm
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homeotic genes
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remain capable of activation long after embryologic dev. ends
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indeterminate cleavage
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results in cells that maintain the ability to develop into complete organism
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determinate cleavage
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cells whose future differentiation pathways are det at an early dev stage
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blastulation
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morula develops fluid filled cavity called blastocoel
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deuterostomes
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blastopore=future anus (humans)
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protostomes
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blastophore=future mouth
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ectoderm
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integument; eye lens; nervous sys
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endoderm
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epi lining of digestive and resp tracts; parts of liver; pancreas; thyroid; bladder
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mesoderm
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musculoskeletal sys; circ sys; excretory sys; gonads; ct; digestive and resp organs
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induction
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influence of specific grp of cells on differentiation of another grp of cells; most often mediated by chem substances
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spongy layer
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contains cholorplasts with air spaces around cells
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palisade layer
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densely packed elongated cells spread over lg surface area
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meristems
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self-renewing cell pop that divide and cause plant growth either in height or width
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primary growth
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occurs as a result of cell division within apical meristems
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secondary growth
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growth outward (forms tree rings)
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geotropism
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growth of portions of plants towards or away from gravity (positive)
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symplast
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cytoplasmic compartment made cont by the presence of plasmodesmata in plant cell walls
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tonoplast
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membrane of the central vacuole; stores water and starch
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macronutrients
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biomolecules that make up majority of lipids; carbs; proteins and nucleic acids (c; h; n; o; p; s; ca; k; mg)
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micronutrients
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fe; cl; copper; manganese; zn; b; ni; molybdenum; used as cofactors for enzs
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short-day plants
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flower when exposed to daylight hrs shorter than threshold amt. (really long-night plants)
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long-day plants
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flower with days longer than a certain threshold (really short-night plants)
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plasmids
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sm circ pieces of extrachromosomal DNA containing few genes
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obligate anaerobes
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cannot survive in presence of oxy
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faculatative anaerobes
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can survive with or without oxy
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obligate aerobes
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require oxy to survive
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saprobes
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absorb nutrients from nonliving matter
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plasmogamy
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fusion of cytoplasms of male and female gametangia
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karyogamy
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fusion of male and female nuclei
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radially symmetric
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bodies stretch out in equal dimensions from a central pt
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bilaterally symmetric
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organized along one vertical or horizontal axis and tend to be long or thin
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acoleomate
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having no body cavity between gut and outer wall
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pseudocoleomate
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having a body cavity that is lined by muscles and bvs on the outside surface of cavity
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coleomate
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having a body cavity lined by muscle tissue and bvs both on outer surface and inner surface; surrounding entire digestive tract
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Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
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gene frequencies remain constant if: no emigration/immigration; lg. pop. size; no net mutations; no nat. selection; random mating
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porifera
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sponges
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cnidaria
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jellyfish; corals; hydra
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platyhelminthes
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flatworms; tapeworms
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aschelminthes
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roundworms; rotifers
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annelida
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earthworms; leachces
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mollusca
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clams; oysters; snails
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arthropoda
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insects; crabs; shrimp
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echinodermata
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sea stars; sea urchins; sea cucumbers
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chordata
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sea squirts; lancelets; ALL vertebrates
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coniferous
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cone-bearing
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permafrost
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layer of subsoil that never thaws (found on tundras)
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primary succession
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gradual change of new/lifeless ares of land into thriving ecosys
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secondary succession
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rebuilding of comm. after destruction
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pioneer organisms
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those that first take hold in barren habitat
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nitrification
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conversion of ammonia to nitrate
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competitive exclusion principle
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2 sp. competing for same lim. resources will result in one of the sp. being driven to extinction
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keystone specie
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if removed; widespread havoc and destruction within comm.
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biomass
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numbers of individuals within a comm.
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gross primary productivity
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total chemical energy generated by produces in a given area
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net primary productivity
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total productivity with losses from resp and other energy use by plants subtracted
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carrying capacity
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max size at which pop can stably interact with environ for long period of time
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density-dependent limiting factor
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affect pop growth to a greater degree the lger the pop gets
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density-independent limiting factor
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likely affect a pop growth regardless of size of pop or how well pop adapted to environ
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K-selected sp
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produce few lg well dev young; parental care; slow growth; delayed mat; delayed repro; long gestation
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r-selected sp
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lots of offspring at once; little or no care; fast growth; repro relatively soon after birth; short gestation
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gene translocation
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moves a gene from one region of chromo neare to a more active promoter region
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cline
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graded variation across a diversity of climates and other environmental conditions
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ecotypes
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locally adapted variants of an organism; differing genetically from other local forms
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transplantation experiments
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smaller; founder pop of a sp is moved to a new area where pop has not previously spread in order to see if org take hold
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autopolyploidy
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becoming polyploid by self fert
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allopolyploidy
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becoming polyploid by combining your chromo with another sp
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inclusive fitness
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grps overall fitness increased when some members behave in way that helps offspring survive/repro (kin selection)
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adaptive radiation
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emergence of many sp from a common ancestor after ancestral pop introduced into environ with diverse conditions/open niches
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phylogeny
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relationship of one sp to another
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systematics
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process of classifying organisms based on phylogeny
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cladistics
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grouping of species determined to be related because of distinguishing novel feature
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cell cycle
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Gap 1 (growth & protein synthesis); S (DNA synthesis); Gap 2 (checking DNA for errors; M (mitosis); Cytokinesis (cells moving away from each other)
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mitosis
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Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
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meiosis
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production of haploid gametes from a diploid cell. In a human with 46 chromosomes, meiosis produces an egg and a sperm, each with 23 chromosomes.
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crossing-over
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the exchange of segments of DNA between homologous chromosomes
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cell organelles & functions ribosome cell membrane smooth ER rough ER Golgi apparatus nucleus nucleolus mitochondria peroxisomes lysosomes
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cell organelles & functions ribosome: protein synthesis cell membrane: selective permeability, communication smooth ER: lipid production rough ER: protein production Golgi apparatus: modifying, packaging, shipping nucleus: chromatin, transcription nucleolus: manufacture of rRNA mitochondria: aerobic respiration, contains own circular DNA, maternal inheritance peroxisomes: detoxifies peroxides lysosomes: contains enzymes for digestion in endocytosis
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disruptive selection
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favors extreme phenotypes
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stabilizing selection
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favors intermediate phenotypes, thought to be most common type. Classic example: baby birth weight (too big difficulty being born, too little health compromised)
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directional selection
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favors one extreme phenotype, usually when a population moves into a new environment (classic example of Darwin's finches)
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prokaryote
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bacteria (no nucleus)
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eukaryote
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complex cells, including nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Plant cells include cellulose cell walls. Fungal cells include chitin cell walls.
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virus
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infectious microbe that is not considered "alive" because it does not metabolize.
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retrovirus
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RNA virus that contains reverse transcriptase, an enzyme that uses the RNA template to make DNA
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antibiotic
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a chemical specifically targeted to inhibit the growth of bacteria
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glucose
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the "typical" carbohydrate, formula C6H12O6. is the building block of starch and cellulose, the prototypical substrate of glycolysis.
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sucrose
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composed of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule.
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glycogen
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molecule used for stored energy, especially in the liver.
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kinase
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an enzyme that transfers a phosphate from ATP to its substrate
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phosphatase
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an enzyme that transfers a phosphate from its substrate, using water and releasing the P as a phosphate ion.
