Adult Development – Flashcards

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Why is the older adult population increasing?
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- Improved sanitation and hygiene - Increased access to birth control - Improved medical care - Development of vaccinations
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Four key features of the life span perspective
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- multidirectionality - plasticity - historical context - multiple causation
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Multidirectionality
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with age, there are growths and declines in various functions
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plasticity
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although aging brings declines in functioning, skills can be learned and improved with time
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historical context
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we develop within specific historical and cultural periods
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multiple causation
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how we understand results from numerous different sources
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4 forces of development
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- biological forces (genetic and health related factors) - psychological forces (perceptual, cognitive, emotional and personality factors) - sociocultural forces (social, cultural and ethnic factors) - life-cycle forces (how the same event can impact people at different points in their lives)
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Biopsychosocial Framework of Adult development and Aging
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includes biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors
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4 controversies in development
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- nature v nurture - stability v change - continuity v discontinuity - universal v context-specific
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nature v nurture
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the extent to which hereditary or environmental influences determine who we are
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stability v change
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the extent to which people change or stay the same over time
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continuity v discontinuity
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whether there is one, universal developmental pathway or many
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universal v context specific
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whether there is one, universal development pathway or many
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reliability
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extent to which a measure provides a consistent index of the construct of interest
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validity
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extent to which a measure measures what it is meant to be measuring
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age effects
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occur as a result of the underlying age-related changes in biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors
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cohort effects
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differences caused by experience or circumstances unique to a specific generation
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time-of-measurement effects
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differences in sociocultural, environmental, historical or other events at the time when the measurement was taking place
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cross-sectional designs
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developmental differences are identified by comparing groups of people varying in age on one point in time
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longitudinal designs
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the same participants are observed repeatedly at different points in their lives
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sequential deisgns
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using more than one cross-sectional or longitudinal design simultaneously
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3 domains of the cultural competency of working with older adults
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- knowledge - skills - attitudes
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structural changes in the eye
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- less light passes through the eyes, so increase illumination is often needed - adjusting to changes in illumination takes more times with age - lens of the eye becomes more yellow causing poorer color discrimination in the green-blue-violet spectrum - presbyopia (bc of stiffening in the lens of the eye, it is harder to adjust and focus vision, making it harder to see nearby objects) - disease can cause abnormal structural changes in the eye
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cataracts
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cause opaque sports on the lens, limiting light that can pass through
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glaucoma
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can cause a buildup of pressure due to poor fluid drainage leading to vision loss
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prevalence of hearing loss
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most well-known normative change with age
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presbycusis
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reduced ability to hear high-pitched tones; results from changes in the inner ear
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gender differences in cardiovascular disease by age
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since the mid-1980s, men have had greater presentation of cardiovascular disease than women and the gap is widening steadily
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hypertension
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condition in which the force of the blood against the artery wall is too high
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hypotension
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abnormally low blood pressure
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chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
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group of diseases including chronic bronchitis and emphysema (respiratory disease)
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aging female reproductive system
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- climacteric - perimenopause - menopause -- symptoms of perimenopause and menopause include hot flashes, headaches, mood changes, and greater difficulty achieving orgasm - physiological changes to the reproductive organs include thinning of the vaginal walls, shrinking of the vagina, and delayed/ reduced vaginal lubrication
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climacteric
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the transition from being able to have children to not
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perimenopause
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time between the mid-40s and the mid-50s when menstrual cycles become irregular and eventually cease
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menopause
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the point at which the ovaries are no longer producing eggs; accompanied by many changes in hormones like estrogen and the reproductive organs and sexual functioning
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aging male reproductive system
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- testosterone declines beginning in the mid-20s - sperm production declines with age - prostate glands enlarge, which can interfere with urination - physiological changes to sexual performance include greater difficulty achieving or maintaining an erection or orgasm
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sleep and aging
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- take longer to fall asleep - are aware more at night - are more easily awakened - experiences major changes in their circadian rhythms (move from two-phase to multi-phase) - increases in sleep disturbances caused by sleep apnea, leg jerks, heartburn, need to urinate, poor health, and depression
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changes in immune system due to aging
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- takes more time to build up immunities to specific diseases - more prone to serious consequences from illness
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Verbrugge and Jette's model of disability
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- risk factors include habits that increase chances of disability or functional limitations - extra-individual factors include environment and health care - intra- individual factors include behaviors and personality- based factors - important to have fitness between and individual and their enviornment
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Activities of daily living
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(ADLs) include basic self-care tasks like eating, bathing, etc; individuals are considered frail when they can no longer complete these on their own
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instrumental activities of daily living
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(IADLs) activities that require intellectual competence and planning like paying bills or taking medication
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automatic processing
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processes which are fast, reliable, and insensitive to increased cognitive demand or difficulty; involves processing of a specific and well-trained stimulus
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effortful processing
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processes which use all available attentional capacity - we have a limited amount of processing capacity or attention, and activities vary in the amount of attention that they need
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selective attention
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how we choose which information will be processed further into a smaller attention capacity store
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divided attention
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degree in which different information can be processed simultaneously; older adults have a much harder time than younger people in multitasking
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sustained attention of viglance
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maintenance of focus while performing a task over a long period of time - age differences are greatest when older adults perform complex tasks, especially more than one at a time. The easier or more automatic the task, the smaller the age differences
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the processing resources hypothesis
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older adults have fewer processing resources than younger adults
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neural networks model
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due to age-related neuronal loss, it takes more connections among neurons to make decisions, thereby slowing down the decision process
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information loss model
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more information is lost at each sep in the process for older adults than younger adults
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how can age differences in reaction time be minimized?
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- experience allows older adults to compensate for slowing speed by anticipating what will happen next - regular, aerobic exercise maintains speed performance - practice
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when driving, what are some of the information processing deficits that older adults have?
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- reading highway signs - reading instrument panels - seeing the road - reaching for seatbelt - backing up - changing lanes - turning properly - yielding to the right of way
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useful field of view (UFOV)
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assesses visual attention in order drivers; has been useful in identifying drivers at high risk for accidents
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working memory
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plays an important role in encoding, storing, and retrieving information; only a few things can be processed at once here but can be moved to long-term storage
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what are the age-related factors of working memory?
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- declines in storage capacity, ability to allocate capacity to multiple tasks, and rates of information processing - declines are greater for spatial memory than verbal working memory - declines are greater in the morning than the evening - declines are greater on more difficult tasks than simpler ones
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episodic memory
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class of memory having to do with conscious recollections of information from a specific event or time; includes information about day to day activities
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what are the age related factors of episodic memory
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- omission of information (rarely see commission - include more intrusions - repetition of previously recalled items - 80% of people in their 20s outperform people in their 70s - differences are reduced on recognition tests - more likely to accept never presented items, especially if they were similar to other items presented - more spontaneous in their memory strategy use, but can use one when instructed to - age differences can be reduced by slowing the presentation pace, allowing time to practice, and using familiar stimuli
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recall
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involves remembering information without hints or cues
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recognition
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involves selecting previously learned information from among several items
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semantic memory
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relates to learning and remembering the meaning of words and concepts that are not tied to any specific events or time
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what are the age-related factors of semantic memory
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- very small changes in semantic memory with increased age - no differences in language comprehension, structures of knowledge, and activation of general knowledge - accessibility has the greatest decline - older adults have more trouble with finding words and tip-of-the-tongue experiences
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age differences in encoding and retrieval
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- age-related declines are in encoding, not in storage - elaborative rehearsal- making connections between incoming information and information that is already known - once connections are made, they are maintained at the same rate as younger adults
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false fame effect
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when a previously observed non-famous names are mistakenly identified as famous names at testing
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source information
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ability to remember the source of a familiar event and whether the event was imagined or actually experiences, declines with age
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false memory
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remembering things that did not occur; older adults are more susceptible to false memories which can make them higher risk for deceptions and scams
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memory for disocurse
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collectively includes reading books, magazines, newspapers, etc.
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route learning/spatial memory
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in familiar environments older adults can do just as well as younger adults, but not in new environments
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gender diferences in route learning
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- older men do more poorly without aids (maps) but with them they do just as well - older women do worse with maps, but not when it is called a diagram; thought to be a cohort effect
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event-based prospective memory
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an action is performed when a certain external event happens (eg. answering the phone when it rings)
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time-based prospective memory
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an action is performed after a fixed amount of time (eg. remembering to attend an appointment)
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psychometric approach
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focuses on standardized test performance with an emphasis on correct answers (eg. Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Adults)
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cognitive-structural approach
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emphasizes the ways in which people conceptualize and solve problems rather than scores on tests (eg. Piaget's developmental theory of cognition)
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Seattle Longitudinal Study
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studied fie primary mental abilities in 5,000 people starting in 1956
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Findings from Seattle Longitudinal Study
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- increases in primary mental abilities until late 30s or early 40s - scores stabilize in the 50s and 60s - by late 60's, declines in all primary mental abilities - within-indiviudal differences show that few people decline in the same way or at the same pace - fluid intelligence tends to show a normative age-related decline - crystalized intelligence does not normally decline with age until very late in life
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age differences in fluid intelligence
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(abilities which make you a flexible and adaptive thinker) - very high in the young - sharply declines with age
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age differences in crystalized intelligence
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(knowledge acquired through life and experience) - lowest in the young - sharply declines with age
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Piaget's theory of intelligence
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- sensorimotor period: babies and infants learn by using sensory and motor skills - preoperational period: children don't think logically and are egocentric - concrete operational period: logical reasoning emerges, but abstractions are difficult - formal operational period: all adult thought; BUT older adults rarely use concrete operational thought
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Costa and McCrae's personality factors
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- neuroticism - extraversion - openness to experience - agreeableness - consciousness
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Stability of personality
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- personality traits shop changing at age 30 - high stability in personality traits
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change of personality
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- self-confidence, cognitive commitment, outgoingness, and dependability may change - neuroticism increases and extraversion decreases
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Srivastava Internet- based study of personality (2003)
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none of the big 5 (NEOAC) personality traits are stable after age 30
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Berkley studies of personality
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- followed people aged 40-70 for 30 years - lifestyle predicted life satisfaction for women - personality predicted life satisfaction for men - both stability and change characterize personality development - stability and change are influenced by socioeconomic context
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Erikson's theory of personality
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- 8 stages of development representing 8 struggles that people must undergo - last 3 stages are young adulthood (love), adulthood (care), and old age (wisdom) - successful resolutions of struggles establish the basic areas of psychosocial strength, and unsuccessful resolutions impair ego development
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generativity
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concern for establishing and guiding the next generation; stronger predictor of emotional well-being in midlife adults
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Loeyinger's theory of personality
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- eight stages of ego development - 6 stages take place in adulthood: -- conformist (obedience to external social rules) -- conscientious (separation of norms and goals; realization of affecting others) -- CONSCIENTIOUS (beginning of self- evaluated standards) -- individualistic (recognition that acting is more important than the outcome) -- autonomous (respect for each person's individuality; tolerance for ambiguity) -- integrated (resolution of inner conflicts)
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4 areas to developmental progression
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1) character development: reflects standards and goals 2) interpersonal style: reflects patterns of relations 3) conscious preoccupation: reflects most important things on the mind 4) cognitive style: characteristic ways in which a person thinks
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midlife correction
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reevaluation of one's roles and dreams and making the necessary corrections
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negativity bias
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older adults hold on to their intial negative impressions because negative information affects them more strongly than positive information
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casual attributions
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explanations that people construct to explain their behavior
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age-based double standard
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attributing an older person's failures in memory to something more serious than in the cases of young adults
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implicit stereotypes
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automatically activated unconscious stereotypes about aging that guide our behaviors
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patronizing talk
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when you slow your speech, use childlike vocabulary, etc.
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stereotype threat
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an evoked fear of being judged in accordance with negative stereotypes about a group to which you belong
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personal control
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the degree to which one believes that performance in a situation depends on something one does personally
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assimilative activities
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prevent or alleviate losses in domains that are personally relevant for self-esteem and identity
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accomodations
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readjusting goals and aspirations as a way to lessen or neutralize the effects of negative self-evaluations in key domains
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Gay male and lesbian couples similarities and differences to heterosexual couples
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- rate of living alone and being without a partner is higher than in heterosexual couples - more homosexual women than men live alone and are without partners; this is the opposite in heterosexual people - gay couples tend to be more egalitarian (mostly women) - both groups show the same changes over time of satisfaction and predictors or relationship success
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factors influencing marital success
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- age of 2 partners at the time of marriage - homogamy: similar values and interests - feelings of equality - exchange theory
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exchange theory
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each partner contributes something to the relationships that the other could not do or would struggle to do
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reasons for increase in divorce
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- no longer as stigmatized as it once was - expectations about marriage have increased
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factors predicting early vs late divorce
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- negative emotions displayed during conflicts predict early divorce - lack of positive emotions during conflicts predict later divorce
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gender differences in adjustment to widowhood
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- over 50% of women over 65 are widows; 15% of same aged men - men are more likely to die soon after spouse - many female widows end up in poverty - widowed men are typically older than widowed women
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5 styles of grandparents
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- formal: traditional roles with hands on perspective to child rearing; most common - fun seeker: informal playfulness; second most common - distant: ritualized and infrequent visits - surrogate parents - dispenser of family wisdom: authoritarian position, giving information and advice
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sandwich generation
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being caught between 2 generations; middle aged parents have to deal with demands of their parents, their children, and their own lives
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filial obligation
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to care for parents if neccessary
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prevalence rates of psychiatric disorders in older adults vs younger age groups
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- cognitive disorders are highest in older adults - other psychiatric disorders are lowest in older adults
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risk factors for depression in older adults
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- female, unmarried, widowed - having less than a high school education - experiencing stressful life events - lacking social support - having chronic illness, living in a nursing home, or being a caregiver - being an ethnic minoirty
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beck depression inventory
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commonly used with adults; focused on feelings and physical symptoms
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geriatric depression Rating scale
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physical symptoms are not included and a yes/no format is implemented
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treatment considerations for older adults
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- drug treatment therapy (SSRI's, HCA's, or MAO inhibitiors)
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delirium
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disturbance of consciousness and change in cognition that develop over a short period of time
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dementia
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affects about 4 million people, which is 6-8% of people over age 65 and 50% of people over age 85
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Major symptoms of Alzheimer's disease
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- gradual changes in cognitive functioning - declines in memory, learning, attention and judgment - disorientation in time and space - difficulties in word finding and communication - declines in personal hygiene and self-care skills - inappropriate social behavior - changes in personality
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sundowning
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symptoms of Alzheimer's disease are generally worse in the evening
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Kurt Lewin's Person- Environment Interaction Formula
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- early model of optimal aging - behavior is a function of the interaction between the personal and their enviornment
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environmental press model by Lawton
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- competence is the theoretical upper limit of a person's capacity to function - competence had 5 domains: -- biological health, sensory-perceptual functioning, motor skills, cognitive skills, ego
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Rowe and Kahn model of successful aging
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- avoid disease and stay healthy - maintain high cognitive and physical function - maintenance of interpersonal relations
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Keys to successful aging by Gatz
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- sound health habits - good habits of thought - a social network - sound economic habits
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Types of prevention of disability
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- primary prevention: an intervention that prevents a disease from occurring (eg. immunizations) - secondary prevention: instituted sometimes before a diagnosis and before symptoms start to show (cancer screenings) - tertiary prevention: efforts to avoid complications, manage pain, and sustain life (eg. sitting someone up in bed) - quaternary prevention: efforts to boost functionality for people with chronic conditions (occupational therapy)
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Lifestyle factors for optimal aging
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- staying fit with moderate exercise - eating right with a balanced diet
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types of elder abuse
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- physical - sexual - emotional/ psychological - financial - neglect - self- neglect
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elder physical abuse
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non-accidental use of force against an elderly person that results in pain, injury or impairment; includes hitting, shoving, and inappropriate use of drugs, restraints, or confinement
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elder sexual abuse
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contact with an elderly person without the elders consent; include sex acts, showing of pornographic material, forcing an elderly person to witness sex acts, and forcing an elderly person to undress
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elder emotional/ psychological abuse
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speaking to or treating an elderly person in ways that cause emotional pain or distress; includes intimidation, humiliation, ridicule, scapegoating, ignoring, isolating or terrorizing an elderly person
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elder financial abuse
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unauthorized use of an elderly person's funds or property either by a caregiver or a scam artist
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elder neglect
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failure to fulfill a caretaking obligation whether intentional or passive
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elder self-neglect
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older adults sometimes stop eating, stop seeing doctors, or abuse alcohol and drugs
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what are the most common types of abuse?
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- 60% neglect cases - 16% physical abuse cases - 12% financial exploitation cases
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characteristics of abuse victims
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- people over 80 are abused 2-3 times more often, but its rising in 60-70 year olds - risk factors include poverty, race, functional and cognitive impairment, and living with someone else - 97% of perpetrators are known to the victim; 76% are spouses or adult children
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Mandating reporting procedure guidelines
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MRP - who is being abused - who must report - what must be reported - when must it be reported - how to report
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MRP who is being abused
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person older than 65 or a dependent adult over 18
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MRP who must report
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anyone caring for an older adult, care providers, health care providers (doctors, nurses, psychologists), in- home support staff, law enforcement, and Department of Social and Employment Services staff
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MRP what must be reported
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physical abuse, neglect by others, neglect by self, financial abuse, abandonment, isolation
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MRP when must you report
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as soon as possible by telephone; within 48 for SOC 341 submission form
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MRP how to report
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call APS hotline and mail the SOC 341 form to APS
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gender differences in occupational choice
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- men and women are socialized differently about what occupations are appropriate - 60% of women work outside the home now
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women's reasons for leaving well- paid occupations
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- family obligations, such as child care - workplace issues, such as poor occupational development or unsupportive work enviornments
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vocational identity
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degree to which one views one's job as key to their identity
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occupational aspirations and expectations of Hispanics
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- high occupational aspirations - low occupational expectations
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sticky floor
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when one's ethnic group dominates only entry-level positions
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sex discrimination
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denying a job to someone just because of their sex
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glass ceiling
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the maximum level to which women may rise in a company
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glass elevator
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tendency for men to rise quickly in female- dominated fields
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comparable worth
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equalizing pay in positions which are equally important but which may differ in gender distribution
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reasonable woman standard regarding sexual harrassment
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- appropriate legal criterion for determining whether sexual harassment has occurred; is used to determine if sexual harassment has occurred
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age discirmination
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denying a job to someone just because of their age
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US Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1986
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- protects workers over the age of 40 - people must be hired based on their ability - employers are banned from refusing to hire or form firing workers based on their age - employers cannot segregate workers based on age
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majority predictors of retirement
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- health - gender: married women often retire based on their spouse's health or number of dependents, men do not - ethnicity: African-Americans label themselves retired based on employment status, not disability, work history or source of income
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gender difference in adjustment to retirement
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men adjust well when they're in good health, they have enough income, they retired voluntarily and they have high levels of personal control
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types of long-term care facilities
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- nursing homes (skilled care faciliites and intermediate care facilities)- 24 hour care - assisted living facilities: supportive living, not 24 hour care - adult foster care: good for people who need help with daily activities but are generally in good health
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patient self-determination act (PSDA)
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requires people to complete advance directives when admitted to health care facilities
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Eden alternative
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- views skilled care environments as habitats rather than facilities - approaches care from a perspective of maintaining dignity - pets are used to create stronger association between former and new living situations
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clinical death
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lack of heart beat and respiration
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brain death
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brain no longer works on its own
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persistent vegetative state
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brain-stem functioning continues after cortical functioning stops
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active euthanasia
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deliberately ending someones life; may be based on the desires of the individual or someone else with the legal right to do so
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passive euthanasia
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allowing a person to die by withholding treatment
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DNR
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do not resuscitate - medical order which is used when cardiopulmonary resuscitation is needed
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age difference regarding feelings about death
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- young adults feel cheated - middle adults begin to shift - older adults feel accepting
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Kubler- Ross stage theory of dying
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- denial: first reaction; shock and disbelief - anger: hostility, resentment, frsuturation and envy - bargaining: people look for a way out - depression - acceptance
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death anxiety: terror management theory
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(pyszczynski) - propose that people engage in certain behaviors to achieve certain psychological states
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end-of-life issues
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management of the final aspects of life, such as disposition of the body, memorial services, and distribution of assets
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final scenario
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making choices about how one does and does not want their life to end
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hospice
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an approach to assisting dying people that emphasizes pain management, palliative care, and death with dignity
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bereavement
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a state or condition caused by loss through death
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grief
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sorrow, hurt, anger, guilt, confusion, or other feelings that arise after a loss
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mourning
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concerns the way in which we express our grief; influenced by cultural norms
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levels of grief in expected v unexpected death
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- intense in both - may begin before actual death in cases of expected death - sometimes grieving process is shorter w expected death
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death of ones spouse gender and age differences
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- pressure to grieve for about a year - young adults show more immediate grief; older adults show more intense grief 18 months after the death and may continue for 30 months - widowhood is more depressing for women then men - bereaved spouses tend to have more positive biases about their marriage - more dependent the survivor, more anxiety they show
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barriers to talking with adult children about end-of-life issues
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- fear of death - trust in others to make decisions - family dynamics - uncertainty about preferences
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competency in aging
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- knowledge -- multiple idenitities and biases, power and privelege dynamics, limitations, uniqueness in diagnosis assessement and treatment - skills: self-reflection and self-awareness - attitudes: awareness about one's identities, biases, and power/privelege
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