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cognitive learning theories

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theories that explain learning in terms of people's thinking and the processes involved in acquiring, organizing, and using knowledge

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information-processing theory

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a theory that describes how information enters our memory system, is organized, and finally stored

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sensory memory

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the memory store that briefly holds incoming stimuli from the environment until they can be processed

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working memory

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the memory store that holds information as we consciously process and try to make sense of it

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central executive

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a supervisory component of working memory that controls the flow of information to and from the other components

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phonological loop

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a short-term storage system for words and sounds in working memory

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rehearsal

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the process of repeating information over and over, either out loud or silently, without altering its form.

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visual-spatial sketchpad

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a short-term storage system for visual and spatial information in working memory

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short-term memory

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the part of our memory system that temporarily holds information until it can be processed

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cognitive load

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the amount of mental activity imposed on working memory

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chunking

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the process of mentally combining separate items into larger, more meaningful units

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automaticity

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the ability to perform mental operations with little awareness or conscious effort

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long-term memory

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the permanent information store in our human memory system

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declarative knowledge

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knowledge of facts, definitions, procedures, and rules

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semantic memory

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memory for concepts, principles, and the relationships among them.

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episodic memory

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memory for personal experiences.

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procedural knowledge

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knowledge of how to perform tasks

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conditional knowledge

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knowledge of where and when to use declarative and procedural knowledge

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schemas

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cognitive structures that represent the way information is organized in our long term memory

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meaningfulness

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the extent to which information in long-term memory is interconnected with other information

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scripts

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schemas for events that guide behavior in particular situations

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attention

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the process of consciously focusing on a stimulus

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perception

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the process people use to find meaning in stimuli

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encoding

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the process of representing information in long-term memory

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rote learning

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learning that involves storing information in isolated pieces, most commonly through memorization

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imagery

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the process of forming mental pictures of an idea.

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dual-coding theory

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a theory suggesting that long-term memory contains two distinct memory systems: one for verbal information and one that stores images.

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organization

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an encoding strategy that involves the clustering of related items of content into categories that illustrate relationships.

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schema activation

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an encoding strategy that involves activating relevant prior knowledge so that new knowledge can be connected to it.

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elaboration

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an encoding strategy that increases the meaningfulness of new information by connecting it to existing knowledge.

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analogies

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descriptions of relationships between ideas that are similar in some but not all respects.

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mnemonic devices

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memory strategies that create associations that don't exist naturally in the content.

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forgetting

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the loss of, or inability to retrieve, information from long-term memory

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interference

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the loss of information because something learning either before or after detracts from understanding.

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proactive interference

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the loss of new information because of the influence of prior learning.

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retroactive interference

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the loss of previously learned information because of the influence of new learning.

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retrieval

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the process of pulling information from long-term memory into working memory.

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metacognition

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our awareness of and our control over out cognitive processes

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meta-attention

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our knowledge of and control over our ability to pay attention

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metamemory

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knowledge of and control over our memory strategies

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unconscious processing

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the tendency to make conclusions and decisions without thinking about them.

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equitable distribution

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the practice of calling on all students in a class equally.

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characteristics

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a concept's essential elements

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concepts

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mental constructs or representations of categories that allow us to identify examples and non-examples of those categories.

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prototype

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in concept-learning theory, the best representation of the category

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exemplars

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in concept-learning theory, the most highly typical examples of a concept.

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problem

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the presence of a goal but the absence of an obvious way to achieve it

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well-defined problem

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a problem that has a clear goal, only one correct solution, and a certain method for finding it.

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ill-defined problem

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a problem that has an ambiguous goal, more than one acceptable solution, and no generally agreed-upon strategy for reaching a solution.

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algorithm

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a specific step or set of steps or finding the solution to a problem

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heuristics

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general, widely applicable problem-solving strategies.

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means-ends analysis

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a heuristic that breaks the problem into subgoals and works successively on each.

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drawing analogies

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a heuristic that is used to solve unfamiliar problems by comparing them with those already solved.

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experts

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individuals who are highly knowledgable or skilled in a specific domain, such as math, history, chess, or teaching.

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interspersed practice

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the process of mixing the practice of different skills.

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blocked practice

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the process of practicing one skill extensively and then moving to a different skill.

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worked examples

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problems with completed solutions that provide students with one way of solving problems

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creativity

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the ability to produce original works or solutions to problems that are productive

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divergent thinking

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the ability to generate a variety or alternate, original solutions to questions or problems.

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problem-based learning

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a teaching strategy that uses problems as the focus for developing content, skills, and self-regulation.

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study strategies

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specific techniques students use to increase their understanding of written materials and teacher presentations.

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guided notes

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teacher-prepared handouts that "guide" students with cues and space available for writing key ideas and relationships.

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text signals

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elements included in written materials that communicate text organization and key ideas.

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summarizing

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the process of preparing a concise description or verbal or written passages.

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comprehension monitoring

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the process of checking to see if we understand what we have read or heard.

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elaborative questioning

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the process of drawing inferences, identifying examples, and forming relationships.

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concept map

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a visual representation of the relationships among concepts that includes the concepts themselves, sometimes enclosed in circles or boxes, together with relationships among concepts indicated by lines linking the concepts.

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conceptual hierarchies

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types of concept maps that visually illustrate superordinate, subordinate, and coordinate relationships among concepts.

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critical thinking

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an individual's ability and inclination to make and asses conclusions based on evidence.

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belief preservation

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people's tendency to make evidence subservient to belief, rather than the other way around.

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confirmation bias

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people's tendency to focus only on evidence that supports their beliefs.

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transfer

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the ability to take understanding acquired in one context and apply it to another.

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general transfer

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the ability to apply knowledge or skills learned in one context to a variety of different contexts.

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specific transfer

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the ability to apply information in a context similar to the one in which it was originally learned.

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model

answer

a representation that helps us visualize what we can't observe directly

Educational Psychology Chapter 7 & 8 – Flashcards

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