question

Token Economy

answer

A form of behavior modification using operant conditioning principles. Every time the patient displays the desired behavior, he is awarded a token (such as a star or a coin) that can be traded for a physical possession or special privilege.

question

Pedagogy

answer

The art of teaching. It encompasses different styles and methods of instructing.

question

Instructional Theory

answer

A theory which focuses on how to structure material to best teach students, especially young ones. This approach can be divided into two general approaches: cognitive and behavioral.

question

Critical pedagogy

answer

A teaching style which seeks to instruct students in how to recognize and rise up against oppression. This area of teaching is influenced by the works of Karl Marx.

question

Law of Effect

answer

A principle proposed by Edward Thorndike stating behaviors with positive outcomes will be repeated while those with negative outcomes will be avoided.

question

Direct instruction

answer

A type of instruction which involves the teacher systematically leading the students step by step to a particular learning goals. This type of teaching is best for learning math or other complex skills, but not for less structured tasks such as English composition.

question

Academic Learning Time

answer

The amount of time the student spends focused on his studies when he is successful at learning the material.

question

Scheduled Time

answer

The total length of the class.

question

Allocated Time

answer

The amount of class time devoted to teaching.

question

Engaged Time

answer

The amount of Allocated Time each individual student spends focused on the class.

question

Active teaching

answer

A method of pedagogy where the teacher actively looks for ways to improve the students' knowledge of a subject. Ways of doing this include actively presenting concepts, checking to see if the students understand, and reteaching any trouble areas for the students.

question

Generative learning

answer

A type of learning where the teacher encourages the students to find their own meaning in learning. The teacher will show relationships between the new subject matter and past learning and will encourage the students to have confidence in their own ability to make these connections.

question

Two-sigma problem

answer

According to researcher Benjamin Bloom, students with individual tutors generally perform two standard deviations (two "sigmas") above those in average classrooms.

question

Norm-Referenced Testing

answer

A testing procedure that measures an individual student's score relative to those of a representative group of students. These tests are used to rank students based on their skill levels compared to their peers.

question

Criterion-Referenced Testing

answer

A testing procedure that measures a student's mastery of a particular skill or understanding of a certain concept. The purpose of this kind of test is to measure whether a student has achieved a certain learning objective.

question

Instruction

answer

All sources that contribute to a student's learning. This term includes the teacher, the textbook, the principal, and any others who promote education.

question

Carroll's Model of School Learning

answer

A learning model that proposes that learning is a function of the ratio between the effort needed to the effort spent learning. learning=f(time spent/time needed)

question

Mastery Learning

answer

Allowing each student to reach full mastery of a concept, regardless of how long it takes.

question

Educational Psychology

answer

The study of how students learn and develop.

question

Steiner-Waldorf Education

answer

A humanistic, interdisciplinary form of teaching which emphasizes the role of creativity and imagination in learning. According to this theory, children pass through three learning stages: imitative learning, artistic learning, and abstract learning.

question

ADHD (Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)

answer

A disruptive disorder characterized by the underdevelopment of certain traits such as impulse control, leading to inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness. The three types are predominantly hyperactive-impulsive, predominantly inattentive, and combined hyperactive-impulsive and inattentive.

question

Learning Disability

answer

A broad category of disorders in which the individual has difficulty learning in a typical way.

question

Dyslexia

answer

A learning disability which impairs a person's language ability. Those with this disorder may have difficulty with reading, writing, or spelling.

question

Mental Retardation

answer

A disorder characterized by an impairment of one's cognitive abilities and problems with adapting to situations. Individuals with this problem often have IQs of under 70.

question

Cerebral Palsy (CP)

answer

A group of non-progressive motor problems which cause psychical disability. These disorders are caused by injuries to the motor control centers in the brain during birth or early childhood.

question

Epilepsy

answer

A neurological disorder characterized by seizures. This disorder is caused by excessive, abnormal brain activity.

question

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

answer

A theory which proposes that there are eight different kinds of cognitive intelligences, none of which are necessarily correlated. The intelligences are spacial, linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic.

question

Psychometrics

answer

The study of the theory and technique of creating psychological tests, such as IQ, aptitude, or personality trait tests.

question

WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children)

answer

An individually administered intelligence test designed for children ages 6-16.

question

WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)

answer

An intelligence test for adults used most commonly in clinical settings.

question

WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence)

answer

An intelligence test for young children ages 2-7.

question

Pivotal Response Therapy

answer

A form of behavioral modification designed for autistic children. This treatment targets key parts of an individual's development, such as motivation or social responsiveness, in the hope that the treatment will spread to other behavioral areas as well.

question

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

answer

Behavioral modification based on behavioral learning theory.

question

Self-Determination Theory

answer

A theory of internal motivation, the forces which drive behavior in the absence of any external stimuli. A key part of this theory is intrinsic motivation.

question

Intrinsic Motivation

answer

According to self-determination theory, the drive one has to perform a specific behavior not for a reward (extrinsic motivation) but for the sheer pleasure of the action itself.

question

Constructivism

answer

A theory which states that individuals create schemata (mental concepts and rules) based on the interaction between their experience and ideas. This theory is based on the ideas of Jean Piaget.

question

Character

answer

The collection of traits in a person that inspires him to behave honestly, respectfully, and courageously.

question

Simple Moral Education Programs

answer

A type of character education where an instructor discusses moral questions with students. This type of program has limited success.

question

Community-Based Education Programs

answer

A community-centered approach to character education that attempts to apply what the students learn in the classroom to everyday life.

question

Character Education Programs

answer

Programs which teach students about different positive character traits and how to apply them to their lives.

question

Two-Store Model

answer

A model of memory that includes three interacting components (sensory register, working memory, and long-term memory) that together process external information. Although there are three parts, only two of them (working and long-term) are used for memory storage.

question

Sensory Register

answer

According to the Two-Store Model, this is the first phase of memory processing. This part of memory temporarily holds all sensory information.

question

Iconic Storage Register

answer

The sensory register for visual information.

question

Echoic Storage Register

answer

The sensory register for auditory information.

question

Attention

answer

Consciously focusing on specific stimuli. This process prevents irrelevant information from interfering with one's cognitive processes.

question

Working or Short-Term Memory

answer

The second level of processing, and the first level of information storage, in the Two-Store Model. At this level, the person is consciously perceiving certain aspects of the external world. In adults, this kind of memory holds up to seven, plus or minus two, bits of information.

question

Rehearsal

answer

Deliberate repetition of information in short-term memory.

question

Maintenance or Rote Rehearsal

answer

Repeating information in the same way it was received.

question

Elaborative Encoding

answer

A method of rehearsal where one retains information in short-term memory by relating it to previously learned knowledge.

question

Chunking

answer

Dividing large amounts of information into smaller pieces that are easier to remember.

question

Automaticity

answer

The ability to perform a task automatically, with little or no conscious effort.

question

Encoding

answer

The process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory by developing meaningful relationships and patterns in the data that relate to one's previous knowledge.

question

Perception

answer

The act of assigning meaning to information by interpreting it based on what one already knows.

question

Long-Term Memory

answer

An unlimited cognitive storage system for retaining permanent records of information deemed important. According to the Two-Store Model, this is the third level of processing and the second level of storage.

question

Semantic Memory

answer

A division of long-term memory for storing factual knowledge.

question

Episodic Memory

answer

A division of long-term memory for storing events in one's life.

question

Procedural Memory

answer

A division of long-term memory for storing rules and methods or performing specific tasks, called procedures.

question

Schemata

answer

Abstract representations of different parts of reality. These groups usually contain general knowledge of the world and examples of its specific parts.

question

Subschemata

answer

Concepts, subdivisions of schemata that help one understand and interpret different parts of the world.

question

Retrieval

answer

Bringing information out of long-term memory.

question

Dual Coding Hypothesis

answer

The idea that concrete ideas can be remembered better than abstract ones because concrete words are stored as both visual and verbal information.

question

Analogies

answer

Relating current information with previous learning.

question

Mnemonic Devices

answer

Memory tools that enhance one's recall by relating information to knowledge with which it has no natural resemblance.

question

Acronym

answer

A mnemonic device that creates a shorthand based on the first letter of each word in a set to be memorized.

question

Acrostic Mnemonic Device

answer

A mnemonic device that creates a sentence based on the first letter of each word in a set to be memorized.

question

Method of Loci

answer

A mnemonic device that aids the memory of a long list of information by linking each item in the list to a specific well-known location.

question

Keyword

answer

A mnemonic device where one will isolate part of a word, create a mental image of the keyword, and use that image to remember the meaning of the word.

question

Forgetting

answer

The inability to retrieve learned information.

question

Decay

answer

The process of learned information simply fading from memory.

question

Proactive Interference

answer

A kind of forgetting where previously learned information interferes with the retrieval of new information.

question

Retroactive Interference

answer

A kind of forgetting where new information interferes with the retrieval of previously learned information.

question

Problem Solving

answer

The application of knowledge, skills, and experience to achieving a particular goal.

question

IDEAL Strategy

answer

A five-step problem-solving strategy that involves identifying the problem, defining one's goals, exploring possible ways to reach the goals, anticipating the outcomes and acting, and looking back on one's work.

question

Means-Ends Analysis

answer

An approach to problem solving where one reasons how to reach the goal based on the current situation.

question

Response Set

answer

Familiar responses to a problem one uses without thinking the situation through.

question

Functional Fixedness

answer

The inability to see a use for an object other than that to which one is accustomed.

question

Brainstorming

answer

Thinking of all the possible solutions to a problem.

question

Algorithm

answer

A step-by-step procedure to solve a problem.

question

Heuristics

answer

General short-cut strategies to problem solving one uses which may not always be correct.

question

Working-Backward Strategy

answer

A problem-solving technique where one starts with the goal and works backward.

question

Transfer of Information

answer

The way that previously learned information affects how one learns new concepts. This can be either positive (helping one understand new ideas) or negative (hindering one from taking in the new information).

question

Specific (or Low-Road) Transfer

answer

Using a previously learned fact or skill in a different situation in virtually the same way.

question

General (or High-Road) Transfer

answer

Transferring a general method of problem solving from one situation to the next.

question

Metacognition

answer

Consciously knowing and using methods of problem solving and memory.

question

Conditioning

answer

A process that occurs when two stimuli are consistently paired, causing the presence of one to evoke the other.

question

Type-S Conditioning

answer

Another name for classical conditioning, based on the importance of stimuli on this approach.

question

Type-R Conditioning

answer

Another name for operant conditioning, due to the importance of responses in determining whether learning has occured.

question

Respondent Behavior

answer

A behavior related to a particular stimulus, according to operant conditioning.

question

Operant Behavior

answer

A behavior not clearly related to a particular stimulus, according to operant conditioning.

question

Reinforcer

answer

Anything which increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.

question

Generalized Reinforcer

answer

A reinforcer which is paired with multiple primary reinforcers, such as academic achievement or social standing.

question

Primary Reinforcer

answer

A reinforcer which is naturally desirable, such as food, water, or heat.

question

Secondary Reinforcer

answer

A reinforcer which is paired with a primary reinforcer, such as money or good grades.

question

Premack Principle

answer

A form of behavioral modification where an desirable activity is used to strengthen a more unpleasant one.

question

Shaping

answer

A form of behavioral modification for getting a subject to start performing a preferable behavior by reinforcing components of the desired behavior and gradually rewarding more discriminatively.

question

Time-Out

answer

A form of negative punishment where a disruptive student is removed from the classroom and not allowed back until he or she is ready to behave.

question

Contingency Contracting

answer

A form of behavioral modification where the teacher and student create a contract specifying certain academic goals and the rewards or privileges that will be given once the goals are reached.

question

Response-Cost System

answer

A form of negative punishment where something wanted by the student will be taken away if he or she behaves in an undesirable way.

question

Planned Ignoring

answer

A form of behavioral modification where the teacher will purposely ignore any disruptive behavior by a student to try to eradicate the behavior.

question

Corporal Punishment

answer

The use of physical punishment.

question

Reciprocal Determinism

answer

The relationship between a student and his or her environment. According to this principle, the student and the environment will influence and affect each other.

question

Expected Outcomes

answer

The results one expects from different behaviors.

question

Observational Learning

answer

Learning which results from observing the results of others' behaviors and judging whether to perform them oneself.

question

Models (Observational Learning)

answer

Those one observes.

question

Direct Modeling

answer

Merely imitating another person's behavior without understanding its meaning.

question

Symbolic Modeling

answer

Behaving like someone in a book or movie.

question

Synthesized Modeling

answer

Integrating parts of the behaviors from several models to form a new behavioral set.

question

Vicarious Learning

answer

Directly viewing the reinforcement or punishment of different behaviors.

question

Self-Regulation

answer

The act of creating one's own standards of behavior based on observations of others. The best performance standards are those which are moderately difficult.

question

Perceived Self-Efficacy

answer

How capable one believes him- or herself to be.

question

Real Self-Efficacy

answer

How capable one actually is.

question

Feedback Loop

answer

The path one follows to correct his or her behavior based on discrepancies between his or her performance and that of a model.

question

Maturation

answer

The natural physical changes that occur due to a person's genetic code.

question

Development

answer

All of the orderly changes which help a person better adapt to the surrounding environment.

question

Organization

answer

The process of interpreting and making sense of the world according to Piaget's model of cognitive development.

question

Reversibility

answer

The ability to reason backward from a conclusion to its cause. According to Piaget, preoperational children lack this skill.

question

Transformation

answer

The ability to mentally retain an object even after it has changed form, such as ice melting into water. According to Piaget, children in the preoperational stage of development lack this ability.

question

Class Inclusion

answer

The ability to think about multiple objects at the same time and discern relationships between them. According to Piaget, children in the concrete operational stage of development develop this skill.

question

Centration

answer

The ability to focus solely on one object. According to Piaget, preoperational children have developed this skill.

question

Conservation

answer

The ability to recognize that the quantity of a substance remains the same, even when it changes form. According to Piaget, preoperational children have developed this skill.

question

Seriation

answer

The ability to arrange objects in order based on some common quality, such as height, color, or size. According to Piaget, concrete operational children have mastered this skill.

question

Transitivity

answer

The ability to infer a relationship between two objects and to compare and arrange them. According to Piaget, concrete operational children have this skill.

question

Classification

answer

The ability to organize objects based on some common characteristic. According to Piaget, concrete operational children have mastered this skill.

question

Internalization

answer

The process of taking in and integrating information from the environment.

question

Zone of Proximal (or Potential) Development

answer

The difference between the skills a child develops alone and those that can be learned with the help of someone knowledgeable. This concept was developed by Vygotsky.

question

Static Assessment Approach

answer

A method of assessing how much students know by giving them closed-ended response questions they are to answer by themselves.

question

Dynamic Assessment Approach

answer

A method of assessing how much students know in which the teacher will assist them in the problem-solving process.

question

Mediated Learning Experiences (MLE)

answer

A teaching method developed by Feuerstein where the teacher will intervene between the student and the learning task. In this method, the teacher will help the student make inferences about the world based on different experiences. This can be done either by the student imitating the teacher or by both working together, called collaborative learning.

question

Learning Potential Assessment Device (LPAD)

answer

A teaching procedure that allows the teacher to test the student's reasoning ability and cognitive functions. Instead of focusing on quantifiable answers, this method aims at improving the student's problem-solving skills.

question

Self-Talk (or Private Speech)

answer

According to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development, a type of speech used by young children to guide their problem-solving process when working by themselves.

question

Inner Speech

answer

Internalized self-talk.

question

Structural Cognitive Modifiability

answer

A theory proposed by Reuven Feuerstein which describes the ability of humans to modify their cognitive process to adapt to different situations in their environment.

question

Preconventional Morality

answer

A level of moral reasoning guided by rewards and punishments, developed by Kohlberg. This level is further divided into two stages: stage 1 (adherence to rules to please authority figures) and stage 2 (follow rules that satisfy one's needs).

question

Conventional Morality

answer

A level of moral reasoning guided by strict adherence to rules, developed by Kohlberg. This level is also divided into two stages: stage 3 (conformity to one's group) and stage 4 (following rules because they promote social order).

question

Postconventional Morality

answer

A level of moral reasoning guided by adherence to overarching moral principles, developed by Kohlberg. This level is also divided into two stages: stage 5 (realization that one is part of a large society where everyone deserves rights) and stage 6 (obeying universal laws and principles).

question

Identity

answer

A person's self-perception, what one thinks of oneself.

question

Foreclosure

answer

A level of identity status where one has created his or her identity based on the opinions of others, not on personal choice.

question

Identity Diffusion

answer

A level of identity status where one has no idea who he or she is, and has not made any significant effort to find out.

question

Moratorium

answer

A level of identity status where the adolescent is actively trying out different beliefs, behaviors, and lifestyles to discover his or her identity.

question

Identity Achievement

answer

A level of identity status where the adolescent has finally created his or her own personal identity.

question

Personal Fable

answer

A common misconception among adolescents that one is destined for fame and fortune.

question

Invincibility Fallacy

answer

A common misconception among adolescents that one is invincible, impervious to harm.

question

Imaginary Audience Fallacy

answer

A common misconception among adolescents that everyone is constantly watching and scrutinizing the adolescent's behavior.

question

Gender Role

answer

The set of social and behavioral norms for each gender held by society.

question

Gender Identity

answer

One's self-perception of his or her gender.

question

Gender Bias

answer

The belief that one gender is better than the other.

question

Anxiety Disorders

answer

A category of psychological disorders where the sufferer will experience chronic anxiety and apprehension.

question

Communication

answer

The exchange of thoughts and feelings through both verbal and nonverbal (such as gestures and facial expressions) means.

question

Language System

answer

A system designed to aid communication. These systems are characteristically organized (have grammar rules for word order), productive (words can be combined in an almost infinite number of arrangements), arbitrary (not necessarily a relationship between a word's sound and its meaning), and discrete (the ability to break it apart into small, identifiable parts).

question

Phonemes

answer

The smallest unit of sound that affects a word's meaning.

question

Phonology

answer

The process of putting together different sounds in a meaningful way.

question

Morphemes

answer

The smallest meaningful units in a language.

question

Syntax

answer

The proper arrangement of words in a sentence.

question

Semantics

answer

The study of the meaning behind words.

question

Pragmatics

answer

The study of the social aspects of language use.

question

Cooing

answer

Spontaneous noises an infant makes which include all of the sounds from every different language.

question

Babbling

answer

Spontaneous noises an infant makes which include only the sounds found in his or her native language.

question

Holophrastic Speech

answer

The use of a single word to represent an entire thought. This kind of speech is found in young children.

question

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

answer

The innate ability to use language, as described by Chomsky.

question

Motivation

answer

The inner drive to perform a particular behavior.

question

Behavioral Theory

answer

A theory which states that the primary source of motivation is extrinsic, or external, rewards.

question

Human Needs Theory

answer

A theory which states that the primary source of motivation is internal needs.

question

Deficiency Needs

answer

One of the two divisions of human needs according to Maslow. These needs are survival (food, water, warmth), safety (freedom from danger), belonging (acceptance from others), and self-esteem (approval from others).

question

Growth Needs

answer

One of the two divisions of human needs according to Maslow. These needs are intellectual achievement, aesthetic appreciation (understanding and appreciating the beauty and truth in the world), and self-actualization (becoming all that one can be).

question

Attribution Theory

answer

A theory which states that how students view the world determines their motivation and behavior. This theory attempts to explain how people account for their successes and failures. In general, students attribute their successes to their innate abilities, while they blame their failures on the situation or other people involved.

question

Ability

answer

One of the characteristics in Attribution Theory a student will use to figure out why his or her actions had the outcome they did. This characteristic is stable and intrinsic to the student.

question

Effort

answer

One of the characteristics in Attribution Theory a student will use to figure out why his or her actions had the outcome they did. This characteristic is unstable and intrinsic to the student.

question

Difficulty of the Task

answer

One of the characteristics in Attribution Theory a student will use to figure out why his or her actions had the outcome they did. This characteristic is stable and external to the student.

question

Luck

answer

One of the characteristics in Attribution Theory a student will use to figure out why his or her actions had the outcome they did. This characteristic is unstable and external to the student.

question

Internal Locus of Control

answer

According to the Attribution Theory, a student who holds this belief considers success or failure to be in his or her control.

question

External Locus of Control

answer

According to the Attribution Theory, a student who holds this belief considers success or failure to be uncontrollable.

question

Stability

answer

According to the Attribution Theory, this concept refers to how constant or changeable a student believes something to be.

question

Responsibility

answer

According to the Attribution Theory, this concept refers to how responsive a student believes the cause of success or failure to be.

question

Social Learning and Expectancy

answer

A theory that proposes there are both external and internal motivational factors. According to this theory, there are two components behind motivation: the personal value of the endeavor and one's perceived ability to accomplish it.

question

Self-Efficacy

answer

One's perceived abilities and competence. According to the Social Learning and Expectancy theory, this depends on four kinds of social experiences: personal experiences of the student; vicarious experiences (observing the rewards or punishments others receive for certain behaviors); social persuasion (the amount of support or encouragement a student receives); and the kind of emotional feedback given to a student.

question

Teaching Efficacy

answer

A teacher's belief that he or she can successfully encourage and enable students to reach their highest levels of achievement, regardless of how difficult the process is.

question

Achievement Motivation

answer

The degree to which a student desires and actively strives to excel and succeed.

question

Extrinsic Motivation

answer

The drive to perform a certain behavior solely to receive an external reward.

question

Structure of Intellect (SOI)

answer

A model of intelligence by Guilford which consists of 150 types of intelligence. According to Guilford, all types of intelligence can be organized along three dimensions: operations (such as memory, cognition, or evaluation), products (such as units, relations, or systems), and contents (such as visual, auditory, or symbolic).

question

Triarchic Theory

answer

A theory of intelligence by Sternberg which views intelligence as consisting of three components: processing components (the ability to process information and solve problems), contextual components (the ability to apply intelligence to everyday problems), and experimental components (the ability to take in new information and change one's current thinking).

question

Aptitude Tests

answer

Tests designed to evaluate a student's present performance and predict how well he or she will perform in the future.

question

Achievement Tests

answer

Tests designed to measure a student's completion or a particular course or subject area.

question

Tracking

answer

Grouping students into different classes based on aptitude test scores.

question

Synthetic Intelligence

answer

The ability to apply previous learning to new situations and problems. This is thought to be one of the types of intelligence on which creativity is based.

question

Analytical Intelligence

answer

The ability to see useful relationships between different ideas or aspects of a problem. This is thought to be one of the types of intelligence on which creativity is based.

question

Practical Intelligence

answer

The ability to create new methods of dealing with everyday problems based on one's prior experiences and feedback from others. This is thought to be one of the types of intelligence on which creativity is based.

question

At-Risk Students

answer

Students who are in danger of failing to complete a basic education needed for operating successfully in society.

question

Exceptional Learners

answer

Students with learning difficulties who require special attention to reach their fullest potentials.

question

Inattention

answer

One of the characteristics of ADHD. This term describes students who are easily distracted and cannot remain focused or remember information.

question

Impulsivity

answer

One of the characteristics of ADHD. This term describes students who act without thinking, drift quickly from activity to the next, and perform dangerous behaviors without regarding their consequences.

question

Hyperactivity

answer

One of the characteristics of ADHD. This term describes students who seem to be unable to sit still, constantly fidgeting or displaying other disruptive behaviors.

question

Behavior Disorders

answer

A group of disorders characterized by inappropriate behaviors that inhibit students from getting along well with others.

question

Externalizing Behavior Disorders

answer

Students with these disorders are angry, defiant, and hostile, seemingly unable to follow the teacher's rules.

question

Internalizing Behavior Disorders

answer

Students with these disorders are depressed, anxious, and withdrawn, lacking confidence.

question

Learning Disabilities

answer

Disabilities that affect children with average or above average intelligence who nevertheless have difficulty with some aspect of learning, such as reading, writing, or solving problems.

question

Mental Retardation

answer

A medical condition present after birth that causes the child to reason or to cope with social situations far below average.

question

Mild Retardation

answer

Mental retardation characterized by an IQ between 50 and 69.

question

Moderate Retardation

answer

Mental retardation characterized by an IQ between 35 and 49.

question

Severe and Profound Retardation

answer

Mental retardation characterized by an IQ of 34 or lower.

question

Intermittent Retardation

answer

Mental retardation needing emotion care on an as-needed basis.

question

Limited Retardation

answer

Mental retardation requiring consistent educational support.

question

Extensive Retardation

answer

Mental retardation needing daily help and support in school.

question

Pervasive Retardation

answer

Mental retardation requiring constant high-intensity educational support to pass through school.

question

Speech and Language Communication Disorders

answer

Disorders characterized by difficulty communicating, either by having trouble expressing oneself or by being unable to properly receive information.

question

Expressive Disorders

answer

Language disorders characterized by difficulty forming sounds or coherent sentences.

question

Receptive Language Disorders

answer

Language disorders characterized by trouble understanding spoken language.

question

Articulation Difficulties

answer

Difficulty pronouncing the correct sound or substituting with an incorrect sound.

question

Fluency Disorders

answer

Difficulty forming smooth connections between words.

question

Voice Disorders

answer

Difficulty speaking due to an obstruction of air in the nose or throat.

question

Visual Impairment

answer

Disorder affecting a child's sight.

question

Hearing Impairment

answer

Disorder affecting a child's hearing.

question

Gifted and Talented Children

answer

A group of children who are outstandingly intelligent (i.e. an IQ of 130 or greater) or are exceptionally skilled in a particular subject or area.

question

Accelerated Programs

answer

Academic programs where students are taught basic information and then allowed to progress at their own pace. This type of program is used for gifted children.

question

Enrichment Programs

answer

Academic programs where students are given a deeper education in their areas of interest.

question

General Exploratory Activities

answer

Academic programs designed to enable students to learn independently more about their areas of interest.

question

Group Training Experiences

answer

Controlled academic programs designed to stimulate students to learn new problem-solving skills.

question

Individual and Small-Group Activities

answer

Academic programs focused on real-life problems and situations, such as developing professional skills or resisting negative peer pressure.

question

Reading

answer

The ability to translate written symbols into abstract concepts and ideas.

question

Meaning Emphasis Strategy

answer

A strategy of teaching reading which stresses the overall meaning of a passage.

question

Language Experience Strategy

answer

A kind of meaning emphasis strategy which relies on the student's experiences and language ability. The student will dictate a story to an adult, who will write it down and then have the child read the dictated story.

question

Whole Language Approach

answer

A kind of meaning emphasis strategy which integrates reading with other language skills such as speaking, writing, and listening.

question

Code Emphasis Strategy

answer

An approach to teaching reading which emphasizes the ability to decode words, involving rules for learning phonemes.

question

Phonics Approach

answer

An approach to teaching reading which attempts to enhance children's phonetic awareness, or ability to discriminate between different phonemes. This method teaches students the relationships between written words and their different phonemes.

question

Data-Driven Models

answer

Reading models which focus on analyzing words letter-by-letter to fully understand the meaning of a text.

question

Concept-Driven Models

answer

Reading models which try to relate written words to different experiences of the student.

question

Reciprocal Teaching

answer

An approach to teaching reading that encourages children to monitor their own reading comprehension. After reading, students will summarize in their own words what they just read, ask questions about the text to find the main points, clarify anything not understood, and guess at what will happen next in the passage.

question

Public Law 94-142

answer

A law enacted in 1975 to ensure that every exceptional learner is given instruction appropriate for his or her needs. The child should be placed in the least restrictive environment possible (i.e. spending the most time with ordinary students).

question

Inclusion

answer

Educating exceptional learners in a regular classroom while offering them any extra assistance they need.

question

Individualized Education Program (IEP)

answer

A legal document describing a child's special needs and what programs and assistance he or she will receive.

question

Instructional Objectives

answer

Clear and specific learning objectives that ensure both the teacher and the student stay on track.

question

Educational Goals

answer

General statements about the skills and abilities the student should have after completing the course.

question

Taxonomy

answer

The study of classification. In teaching, systems of this type provide a hierarchical scheme of different learning objectives which helps the teacher include all of the skills and concepts needed for mastery of a topic.

question

Cognitive Objectives

answer

Taxonomies dealing with the different cognitive abilities the student should develop.

question

Affective Objectives

answer

Taxonomies detailing the types of values and attitudes the student should develop by the end of the course.

question

Psychomotor Objectives

answer

Taxonomies describing physical abilities and skills the student should master.

question

General Objectives

answer

Learning objectives relating to abstract concepts such as understanding or being able to apply knowledge to different situations. Gronlund proposed a instructional theory focusing on this kind of learning objective.

question

Specific Learning Outcomes

answer

Learning outcomes defined by specific operational steps and skills a student must master. Gronlund believed that general objectives would lead to these kinds of outcomes.

question

Task Analysis

answer

Breaking apart a learning task into specific, concrete objectives a student must achieve to master the task.

question

Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

answer

A taxonomy created by Bloom. According to this model, there are six levels of mastery of a concept. The student must reach the levels in specific order; higher level skills cannot be mastered without the lower levels. The levels are knowledge (simply remembering the information), comprehension (understanding the material), application (applying the information in concrete situations), analysis (being able to break the information down to its essential parts), synthesis (being able to recombine the parts into a coherent whole), and evaluation (being able to judge the value or worth of a product, using the information as criteria).

question

Performance-Based Test Strategies

answer

Testing strategies which have students create long-term projects to determine how much they have learned.

question

Portfolio

answer

A kind of performance-based testing strategy that combines multiple projects of the student that were made at various stages in a project.

question

Exhibition

answer

A kind of performance-based testing strategy where students will work on a project over a long period of time.

question

Demonstrations

answer

A kind of performance-based testing strategy that allows students to apply knowledge learned in one situation to a different one.

question

Formative Evaluation

answer

A kind of testing the teacher uses to determine what aspects of a subject to focus on, depending on how much the students know and comprehend.

question

Summative Evaluation

answer

A kind of testing the teacher uses to measure the students' mastery of a particular subject. These tests are used in a student's final grade.

question

Absolute Grading Standards

answer

An approach to grading where the students are given a numerical score, using either a 10-point or a 7-point grading scale. These scores may be translated into a letter grade or compared to the average score on a test.

question

Relative Grading Scales (Curving)

answer

An approach to grading where students' individual scores are compared to a predetermined average score.

question

Descriptive Grading Scales

answer

An approach to grading using descriptive terms such as "outstanding" or "unsatisfactory" to rate the student's performance.

question

Performance Grading Scales

answer

An approach to grading which uses a portfolio of a student's work to measure that student's development over time and to compare it to that of others in the class.

question

Mastery Grading Scales

answer

An approach to grading which establishes a standard students must reach to pass and allows them to continue studying until they reach it.

question

Achievement Test Battery

answer

A kind of achievement test which combines several different subject areas into the same test.

question

Competency Tests (or End-of-Grade Tests)

answer

Tests used to determine if students have achieved a minimum amount of learning needed to pass a class.

question

Diagnostic Achievement Tests

answer

Tests used to determine a student's strengths and weaknesses, judging whether or not a student needs special education services.

question

Derived Score

answer

A raw score converted into a form in which it can be compared to other scores from the same test.

question

Norm Group

answer

A sample group who is to represent the population being tested.

question

Descriptive Statistics

answer

Methods of quantitatively analyzing and organizing scores. The methods used include mean, median, mode, range, and standard deviation.

question

Normal Distribution

answer

A bell-shaped curve which can be easily and consistently used to interpret scores.

question

Stanine (STAndard NINE)

answer

A method of scaling scores using a nine-point scale with a mean of 5 and standard deviation of 2. This method is intended to minimize insignificant differences between scores.

question

Z-Scores

answer

A method of scaling scores using a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

question

T-Scores

answer

A method of scaling scores using a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.

question

Percentile Scores

answer

A method of scaling scores using a percentage of scores less than or equal to the student's score.

question

Grade-Level Equivalent Scores

answer

A method of scaling scores which evaluates students in terms of the grade level at which they are functioning.

question

Validity

answer

A measure of how well a test correlates with the skill, trait, or behavior the test is supposed to be evaluating.

question

Content Validity

answer

The degree to which the content of a test represents the broader subject area the test is supposed to measure.

question

Face Validity

answer

How relevant a test is at face value.

question

Criterion-Related Validity

answer

The degree to which a test correlates with a direct measure of what the test is designed to measure, such as how well a reading test correlates with a student's actual reading level.

question

Predictive Validity

answer

The degree to which a test accurately predicts a student's future behavior.

question

Construct Validity

answer

The degree to which a test accurately measures the trait or skill it is designed to measure.

question

Concurrent Validity

answer

The degree to which performance on one test correlates with performance on a second test.

question

Reliability

answer

A measure of how consistent scores are on the same test. Any differences are attributed to errors in the test.

question

Test-Retest Reliability

answer

A measure of how well scores from the same test correlate when taken by the same people on two different occasions.

question

Alternate (or Parallel) Forms Reliability

answer

A measure of how well scores from two different tests meant to evaluate the same thing correlate with each other.

question

Split-Half (or Spearman-Brown) Reliability

answer

A measure of how well scores from one half of a test correlate with those from the other half.

question

Kuder-Richardson Reliability

answer

A measure of the internal consistency of a test.

question

Test Bias

answer

A condition where a test consistently provides an inaccurate score due to some property of the test taker, such as gender, socioeconomic status, or race.

question

Confidence Interval

answer

A possible range a student's scores may fall in if the student took the test multiple times.

question

Standard Error of Estimate

answer

A measure of how imperfect the validity of a test is.

question

Expository Teaching

answer

A kind of teaching which stresses that students identify the underlying relationships between different concepts and ideas to enhance their understanding.

question

Clustering

answer

A learning strategy which involves grouping information into categories based on shared patterns, sequences, or characteristics.

question

Discovery Learning (or Guided Learning or Constructivism)

answer

A form of teaching where the teacher will act as a guide as the students actively discover underlying patterns, solve problems, and form general rules from data.

question

Advance Organizer

answer

Information given in advance of a lesson to prepare the students by reminding them of important information learned before and focusing them on key information.

question

Cooperative Learning

answer

A type of learning where a small group of students will work together on the same project, each making some contribution.

question

Models (Instruction)

answer

Visual images, such as maps, tables, or graphs, which organize information and help consolidate concepts for the students.

question

Learned Helplessness

answer

Students with this condition have learned that their efforts are all in vain and have given up trying to study by themselves.

question

Guided Discovery

answer

The process a teacher uses in discovery learning by guiding the students.

question

Comparative Advance Organizers

answer

Advance organizers which list previously learned information the students will need for the lesson.

question

Expository Advance Organizers

answer

Advance organizers which list new, unlearned information the students will need for the lesson.

question

Student Team Achievement Decisions

answer

A type of cooperative learning where the teacher will teach the students a skill, divide them into teams, and allow each team to practice the skill until all teams understand it perfectly.

question

Jigsaw II

answer

A type of cooperative learning where students will be divided into teams and each student will be responsible for some aspect of a project.

question

Elaboration

answer

Relating new information to that previously learned.

question

Questioning Techniques

answer

Asking students challenging questions to gauge their understanding and focus their attention.

question

Cultural Deficit Theories

answer

Theories which argue that the language, culture, and traditions of minority students negatively affects their academic ability.

question

Cultural Differences Theories

answer

Theories which view the unique language, culture, and customs of minority children as an asset in their learning.

question

Maintenance Bilingual Programs

answer

Bilingual education programs which teach students both in their native tongue and English, allowing them to maintain their bilingualism.

question

Transitional Bilingual Programs

answer

Bilingual education programs which instruct minority students in their native tongue until they become more competent in English.

question

English as a Second Language (ESL) Programs

answer

Bilingual education programs which aim to use English as much as possible.

question

Socioeconomic Status

answer

One's social and economic standing, including one's class, race, and education. SES is highly influential on students' success in school, with those from low-SES families performing below their high-SES classmates.

question

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

answer

A prediction which causes itself to become true. In educational psychology, the teacher's expectations about a student's success almost always come true, regardless of whether or not the expectations were backed by truth.

question

Withitness

answer

Teachers with this quality are constantly aware of and in control of everything going on in a classroom.

question

Group Consequences

answer

Punishing or rewarding the entire class based on its obedience to the rules.

question

Assertive Discipline

answer

An approach to classroom management where the teacher will enforce clear rules for student conduct, quickly and impartially punishing any disobedience.

question

Object-Relations Theory

answer

A theory by Melanie Klein which proposes a child's personality develops from the child's relationship with his or her mother. According to this view, children need a strong mother to develop well.

question

Social Cognition

answer

Knowledge and understanding of society's rules, usually gained from experience.

question

Social Inferences

answer

Assumptions about how different social relationships work and how other people feel and think.

question

attrition

answer

The loss of subjects in a research study over time due to participant drop-out.

Intro to Educational Psychology CLEP – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards