General Psychology Chapter 1-4 – Flashcards
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Explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or events. For example, low self-esteem contributes to depression.
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Theory
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testable prediction, often prompted by a theory, to enable us to accept, reject or revise the theory. People with low self-esteem re apt to feel more depressed.
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Hypothesis
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would require us to administer tests of self-esteem and depression. Individuals who score low on a self-esteem test and high on a depression test would confirm your hypothesis.
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Research
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1. Theory -> 2. Hypothesis -> 3. Research & observations -> back to step 1.
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Research Process
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A technique in which one person is studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles.
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Case Study
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Technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of people.
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Survey
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Observing and recording the behavior of animals the wild and recording self-treating patterns in a multiracial school lunch room constitutes naturalistic observation.
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Naturalistic Observation
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When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say the two correlate. Correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of the relationship between two variables.
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Correlation
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a graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables.
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Scatterplots
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Correlation does not men causation.
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Correlation and Causation
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The perception of a relationship where no relationship actually exists. Parents conceive children after adoption.
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Illusory Correlation
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Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns.
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Order in Random Events
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Many factors influence our behavior. experiments MANIPULATE factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under CONTROL. Effects are generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.
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Exploring Cause & Effect
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In evaluating drug therapies, patients and experimenter's assistants should remain unaware of which patients had the real treatment and which patients had the placebo treatment.
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Double-blind Procedure
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Assigning participants to experimental (breast-fed) and control (formula-fed) conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groups.
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Random Assignment
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factor manipulated by the experimenter. The effect of the independent variable is the focus of the study. For example, when examining the effects of the breast feeding upon intelligence, breast feeding is the independent variable.
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Independent Variable
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factor that may change in response to an independent variable. In psychology, it is usually behavior or a mental process. For example, in our study on the effect of breast feeding upon intelligence, intelligence is the dependent variable.
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Dependent Variable
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Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a distribution. Mean: The arithmetic average of scores in a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores that were added together. Median: The middle score in a rank-ordered distribution.
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Measures of Central Tendency
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Range: The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution. Standard deviation: A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.
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Measures of Variation
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Sqrt(Sum of deviations^(2)/Number of scores)
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Standard Deviation equation
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A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data (normal distribution). Most scores fall near the mean.
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Normal Curve
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The body's information system is built from billions of interconnected cells called neurons.
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Neural communication
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A nerve cell, or a neuron, consists of many different parts.
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Neuron
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Cell Body: life support center of the neuron Dendrites: Branching extensions at the cell body. Receive messages from other neurons. Axon: Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons. Terminal branches of axon: Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons.
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Parts of a Neuron
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life support center of the neuron
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Cell body
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Branching extensions at the cell body. Receive messages from other neurons.
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Dendrites
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Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin [MY-uh-lin] sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons.
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Axon
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Branched endings of an axon that transmit messages to other neurons.
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Terminal branches of axon
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A neural impulse. A brief electrical charge that travels down an axon and is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.
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Action Potential
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Each neuron receives excitatory and inhibitory signals from many neurons. When the excitatory signals minus the inhibitory signals exceed a minimum intensity (threshold) the neuron fires an action potential.
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Threshold
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A strong stimulus can trigger more neurons to fire, and to fire more often, but it does not affect the action potentials strength or speed.
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Action Potential Properties All-or-None Response
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of an action potential remains the same throughout the length of the axon.
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Action Potential Properties Intensity
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A junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. This tiny gap is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
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Synapse
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Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it to generate an action potential.
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Neurotransmitters
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neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons through the process of reuptake. This process applies the brakes on neurotransmitter action.
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Re-uptake
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Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the receiving neuron in a key-lock mechanism.
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Lock & Key Mechanism
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Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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Nervous System
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Consists of all the nerve cells. It is the body's speedy, electrochemical communication system.
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Nervous System
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The brain and spinal cord.
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Central Nervous System (CNS)
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The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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Controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands. Leads to sympathetic (arousing) or parasympathetic (calming).
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Autonomic Peripheral
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Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
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Somatic Peripheral
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The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles.
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Somatic Nervous System
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Part of the PNS that controls the glands and other muscles.
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Autonomic Nervous System
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Division of the ANS that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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Division of the ANS that calms the body, conserving its energy.
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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"arouses" (fight-or-flight)
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Sympathetic NS
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"calms" (rests and digests)
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Parasympathetic NS
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Outgoing information
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Motor Neuron
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Incoming information
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Sensory Neuron
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Chemicals synthesized by the endocrine glands that are secreted in the bloodstream. Hormones affect the brain and many other tissues of the body. For example, epinephrine (adrenaline) increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and feelings of excitement during emergency situations.
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Hormones
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Is called the "master gland." The anterior pituitary lobe releases hormones that regulate other glands. The posterior lobe regulates water and salt balance. Secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands.
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Pituitary Gland
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Consist of the adrenal medulla and the cortex. The medulla secretes hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) during stressful and emotional situations, while the adrenal cortex regulates salt and carbohydrate metabolism. Adrenal glands (inner part helps trigger the "fight-or-flight" response). Pancreas (regulates the level of sugar in the blood)
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Adrenal Glands
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Oldest part of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells and enters the skull. It is responsible for automatic survival functions.
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Brainstem
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The "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem. It helps coordinate voluntary movements and balance.
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Cerebellum
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The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres. it is the body's ultimate control and information procession center.
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The Cerebral Cortex
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Each brain hemisphere is divided into four lobes that are separated by prominent fissures. These lobes are the frontal lobe (forehead), parietal lobe (top to rear head), occipital lobe (back head) and temporal lobe (side of head).
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Structure of the Cortex
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Brain activity when hearing, seeing, and speaking words.
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Specialization & Integration
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Auditory cortex and Wernicke's area.
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Hearing words
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Visual cortex and angular gyrus.
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Seeing Words
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Broca's area and the motor cortex.
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Speaking words
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refers to the brain's ability to modify itself after some types of injury or illness.
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Plasticity
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Our brain is divided into two hemispheres, processes reading, writing, speaking, mathematics, and comprehension skills. In the 1960's, it was termed as the dominant brain.
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The left hemisphere
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A procedure in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them.
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Splitting the Brain
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With the corpus callosum severed, objects (apple) presented in the right visual field can be named. Objects (pencil) in the left visual field cannot.
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Split Brain Patients
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Modern psychologists believe, is an awareness of ourselves and our environment. Some occur spontaneously, some are physiologically induced, some are psychologically induced.
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Forms of Consciousness
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Our conscious awareness processes only a small part of all that we experience. We intuitively make use of the information we are not consciously aware of.
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Selective Attention
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Refers to the inability to see an object or a person in our midst. Simons & Charbis (1999) showed that half of the observers failed to see the gorilla-suited assistant in a ball passing game.
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Inattentional Blindness
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Form of inattentional blindness in which two-thirds of individuals giving directions failed to notice a change in the individual asking for directions.
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Change Blindness
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Sleep - The irresistible tempter to whom we inevitably succumb.
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Sleeps & Dreams
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occur on a 24-hour cycle and include sleep and wakefulness. Termed out "biological clock" it can be altered by artificial light.
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Circadian Rhythms
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Measuring sleep: About every 90 minutes, we pass through a cycle of five distinct sleep stages.
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Sleep Stages
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When an individual closes his eyes but remains awake, his brain activity slows down to a large amplitude and slow, regular alpha waves (9-14 cps). A meditating person exhibits an alpha brain activity.
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Awake but relaxed
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During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is daydreaming shows theta activity.
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Sleep stages 1-2
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During deepest sleep (stages 3-4), brain activity slows down. There are large-amplitude, slow delta waves (1.5-4 cps).
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Sleep Stages 3-4
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After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage 1. Although still asleep, the brain engages in low amplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps) much like awake-aroused state. A person during this sleep exhibits Rapid Eye Movement (REM) and reports vivid dreams.
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Stage 5: REM sleep
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If an individual remains awake for several days, immune function and concentration deteriorates and the risk of accidents increases.
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Why do we sleep?
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1. Fatigue and subsequent death. 2. Impaired concentration. 3. Emotional irritability. 4. Depressed immune system. 5. Greater vulnerability.
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Sleep Deprivation
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Frequency of accidents increase with loss of sleep.
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Accidents
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1. Sleep protects 2. Sleep helps us recover. 3. Sleep helps us remember. 4. Sleep may play a role in the growth process.
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Sleep theories
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Sleeping in the darkness when predators loomed about kept our ancestors out of harm's way.
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Sleep Protects
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Sleep helps restore and repair brain tissue.
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Sleep helps us recover
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Sleep restores and rebuilds our fading memories.
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Sleep helps us remember
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During sleep, the pituitary gland releases growth hormone. Older people release less of this hormone and sleep less.
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Sleep may play a role in the growth process
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Night terrors Sleepwalking Sleeptalking
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Sleeping Disorders
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The sudden arousal from sleep with intense fear accompanied by physiological reactions (e.g., rapid heart rate, perspiration) which occur during stage 4 sleep.
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Night terrors
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A stage 4 disorder which is usually harmless and unrecalled the next day.
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Sleepwalking
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A condition that runs in families like sleepwalking. Occurs in stage 4 sleep.
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Sleeptalking
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People generally eat a lot while they are sleeping. Usually happens due to medication.
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Sleepeating
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When we know that we are dreaming and we can start controlling and change the outcome.
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Lucid dreaming
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8 out of 10 dreams have negative emotional content
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Negative emotional content
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People commonly dream about failure, being attacked, pursued, rejected, or struck with misfortune.
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Failure dreams
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Contrary to our thinking, sexual dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in 10; and in women are 1 in 30.
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Sexual dreams
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Sigmund Freud suggested that dreams provide a psychic safety valve to discharge unacceptable feelings. The dream's manifest (apparent) content may also have symbolic meanings (latent content) that signify out unacceptable feelings.
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Why we Dream Wish Fulfillment
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Dreams may help sift, sort, and fix a day's experiences in out memories.
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Information processing
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Dreams provide the sleeping brain with periodic stimulation to develop and preserve neural pathways. Neural networks of newborns are quickly developing; therefore, they need more sleep.
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Physiological function
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suggests that the brain engages in a lot of random neural activity. Dreams makes sense of this activity.
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Activation-synthesis theory
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Some researchers argue that we dream as a part of brain maturation and cognitive development.
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Cognitive development
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A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.
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Hypnosis
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hypnotic subjects may simply be imaginative actors playing a social role.
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Social Influence theory
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Hypnosis is a special state of dissociated (divided) consciousness (Hilgard, 1986, 1992)
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Divided consciousness theory
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drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. (alcohol, barbiturates, opiates)
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Depressants
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drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions. (caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, ecstasy, amphetamines, methamphetamines).
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Stimulates
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are psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.
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Hallucinogens
