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natural selection

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the evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations

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evolutionary psychology

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the study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection

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culture

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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted form one generation to the next.

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norm

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standard for accepted behavior; prescribes to proper behavior

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gender

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the characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male and female

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male qualities

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more dominant, driven, and aggressive; risky

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female qualities

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more democratic leadership

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women and friendship

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describe themselves in more relational terms -welcome more help -more attuned to others' relationships

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men and friendship

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more often focus on tasks and connection with large groups

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women and aggression

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covert--i.e. gossip

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men and aggression

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shown physically

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men and sexuality

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think about it more often and initiate it

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women and sexuality

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inspired by emotional closeness

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conformity

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a change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure

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Sherif's 1930 paradigm

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-average answers alone ~8 -the next day two others joined who guesses were very different than the original -group norm emerged ----> our views of reality are not ours alone

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75%

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what percentage of people conformed at least once in that first experiment?

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normative influence

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conform to fit in or be accepted

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informational influence

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people accept evidence about reality provided by tore people --wanting to be right

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status

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higher status people tend to have more impact

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public response

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conform more when they must respond in front of others rather than writing private answers

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less

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individualist cultures are____ likely to conform

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obedience

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acting in accord with a direct order or command

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65%

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what percentage of people obeyed the experimenter all the way to the highest levels of shocks

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four factors to increase obedience

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1) the victim's distance 2) closeness and legitimacy of authority 3) institutional authority (Yale) 4) liberating effects of group influence (teacher and two confederates)

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Milgram situational reasons

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1)behavior and attitude--viewing learner as unworthy 2) evil results from social roles--just doing the "job"

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Milgram cultural influences

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those in collectivist countries are more responsive to others' influence --individualist esp. youth see themselves as "nonconforming"

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two ways in which people resist conformity

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1)reactance 2)asserting uniqueness

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reactance

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going in the opposite direction

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original social facilitation effect

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the tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned takes better when others are present

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current social facilitation effect

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the strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses in the presence of others

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three potential causes for social facilitation effect

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1) evaluation apprehension 2) driven by distraction 3) mere presence

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evaluation apprehension

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concern for how others are evaluating us

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driven by distraction

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distracted by what others think of us --conflict by giving both task and audience attention

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mere presence

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--Zajonc --also happens in animal kingdom --rowers are stronger when together

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social loafing

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the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable

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free riders

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people who benefit from the group but give little in return

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deindividuation

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loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension occur in group situations that foster responsiveness to grow norms--good or bad --mob mentality --cyberbullying

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factors that affect deindividuation

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group size physical anonymity (uniforms) arousing and/or distracting activities diminished self awareness

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group size

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unidentifiable perceiving the action as the groups attention is focused on the group, not the self

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anonymity

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depersonalized cannot be held accountable

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arousing and/or distracting activities

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small attention grabbing action (yelling) promote loss of inhibition group has the attention

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diminished self awareness

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disconnect behavior from attitude opposite of deindividuation unable to self-regulate

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risky shift

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occurs not only when a group decided by consensus, after a brief discussion, denials too, will after their decision --NOT universal; discussion strengthens the average inclination of group members

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group polarization examples

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information influence normative influence

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informative influence (gp)

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group discussion favors a dominant viewpoint --weak arguments can shift positions and promote acceptance

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normative influence (gp)

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---express stronger views when we have others agreeing -minority assumes no one disagrees like they do

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Festinger's social comparison

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evaluating your opinions by comparing yourself with others

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groupthink

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the mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to overrides realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action

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three categories of groupthink symptoms

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1)overestimate group right and might 2)close-minded 3)uniformity

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overestimate group right and might

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--illusion of vulnerability (excessive optimism) --unquestioned belief in group's morality

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close minded

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-rationalization -stereotyped view of opponent

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uniformity

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conformity pressure illusion of unanimity self-censorship

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steps to reduce groupthink

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be impartial encourage critical evaluation subdivide and regroup outside critique second-chance vote open leadership

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central route

answer

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments an d respond with favorable thoughts

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peripheral route

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occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues such as the speaker's attractiveness

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central route effective

answer

analytical and motivated audience strong and compelling argument

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rule of thumb

answer

type of heuristics associated with peripheral route

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sleeper effect

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a delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message become effective, such as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it

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strengthening personal commitment

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stand up for what you believe it it makes yours beliefs stornger

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inoculation

answer

exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutation available

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the source

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expertise trustworthy attractive

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expertise

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credibility is believability

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trustworthy

answer

not perceived by audience that you are persuading them eye contact talking fast

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attractiveness

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physical or in similarities (matters of personal value)

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the message

answer

well educated/analytical audiences respond well to ration al arguments uninterested=peripheral

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effect of good feelings

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enhance persuasion because it enhances positive thinking associated with the message good mood

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effect of arousing fear

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vivd stories evoking negative emotions works best if message lead people to be aware of the solution

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discrepancy

answer

must be a very credible source interacts with creidiblilty deeply involved people tend to accept only narrow range of views

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one sided

answer

already agree with speaker

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two sided

answer

those who disagree with your argument because they are aware of both sides, use both in argumnet

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primacy effect

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first usually has most impact stimulates thinking

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recency effect

answer

works if there is time between arguments and judgements commit yourself soon after second message

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channel of communication

answer

the way the message is delivered

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life cycle

answer

attitudes change with age false

question

generational

answer

attitudes don't change with age there is a generation gap

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forewarned

answer

if you want to counter argue, must know someone is trying to persuade you

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distraction disarms counter arguing

answer

simple message,s visual images occupying brain stimulate thinking political adds

question

foot in the door

answer

influence technique based on commitment, in which one starts with a small request in order to gain eventual compliance with a larger request

question

door in the face

answer

influence technique based on reciprocity, in which one starts with an inflated request and then retreats to a smaller request that appear to be a concession

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lowball

answer

influence technique based on commitment, in which one first gets a person to comply with a seemingly low-cost request and only later reveals hidden additional costs

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that's not all

answer

influence technique based on reciprocity, in which one first makes an inflated request but, before the person can answer yes or no, sweetens the deal by offering a discount or bonus

question

even a penny helps

answer

convince person to just give something at least

question

reactance

answer

If you try too hard to persuade someone of something that person will choose to believe the opposite of your opinion.

question

conditions to reduce social loafing

answer

1. make individual performance identifiable 2. the task is challenging 3. the task is appealing 4. the task is involving 5. adding incentives or standards 6. group cohesion/friendship among members 7. keeping work groups small 8. commitment (team spirit)

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