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Cognitive dissonance Balance theory Elaboration likelihood model Social judgement theory

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Four theroies of attitude change

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1. Frustration-aggression hypothesis: aggression is the consequence of frustration and is indented to remove frustrating block modification: aggression required frustration AND external cues allowing aggression 2. Social learning theory--Bobo doll--aggression is due to observational learning Imitation is facilitated by powerful/successful/liked model, same sex model, model that is rewarded

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Two theories of aggression

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1. Deindividuation 2. Social roles (i.e. Standord Prison Study) 3. Catharsis hypothesis: aggression reduces arrousal--> not supported; instead, aggression increases negative feelings and the liklihood of future aggression 4. Threat of retaliation: lowers aggression unless coupled with provocation

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Four factors that affect aggressiveness (hypothesis regarding aggression or individual & group factors)

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1. approach-approach: two equally positive goals 2. avoidance-avoidance: two equally negative goals 3. approach-avoidance: single goal with positives and negatives 4. double approach-avoidance: two goals with positives and negatives

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Four types of intraindividual conflicts

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Memory tends to be better for interrupted or uncompleted tasks due to "psychic tension"

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Zeigarnik Effect

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These types of people are most easily persuaded: 1. young audiences 2. audiences with low intelligence 3. audiences with either high or low self-esteem

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Attitude change: Three important characteristics of the audience

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2 ways that persuasion occurs: Central route: interesting or imporant message; neutral or slightly negative mood (*change here depends on the quality of the argument) Peripheral route: uninteresting message; positive mood (*change here depends on the quantity of the argument) Central route is more enduring and resistant to future attempts to change

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Elaboration Likelihood Model

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Three categories of judgement used to evaluate persuasive messages: 1. Latitude of acceptance (all positions considered acceptable) 2. Latitude of rejection (all unacceptable positions) 3. Latitude of non-committal (how committed to topic) The higher the ego involvement of the topic, the lower the latitude of acceptance and the higher the latitude of rejection

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Social Judgement Theory

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When people hold incompatible cognitions, it makes them uncomfortable and they try to reconcile. 1. The more someone suffers for something, the more positively they evaluate it later (e.g., uncomfortable/difficult club initiation) 2. Post decisional dissonance is reduced by changing previous evaluations of options (i.e., once you've made your decision, you change your evaluation of the two options to agree with your choices)

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Cognitive Dissonance Theory (and two special scenarios)

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Three entities (P)erson, O(ther), and X(object)--can be balanced or unbalanced, try to attain balance If Paul (P) likes Olive (O) by hates Xylophones (X) but he finds out Olive loves Xylophones, then Paul will either change his opinion of Olive or Xylophones to regain balance.

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Balance Theory

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Cost vs. rewards impact relationships--> more likely to stay in a relationship when rewards outweigh costs More predictive of strangers/acquaintances and business associates than family or close friends; Unlikely to expect compensation from close relationships

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Social Exchange Theory

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Authoritarian personality Stereotyping Perceived threat

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Three factors linked to prejudice and descrimination

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Every psychological even depends on the state of the person and the environment B= f (P, E) Part of gestalt theory--basically states that it's important to understand all aspects of the person (behavior, thoughts, feelings, etc) as well as all aspects of the environment in which they are behaving in order to fully understand the behavior.

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Lewin's field theory

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1. Emergency is nonambiguous 2. Bystander feels responsible for victim or competent to help 3. Someone else has already intervened 4. Emergency is in a rural or noncrowded area

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Four factors that increase a person's willingness to intervene (help in a crisis)

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1. Credibility 2. Trustworthiness: depends on the motives of the communicator--a person is seen as more trustworthy if they are arguing against their own best interests Sleeper effect: After time, people remember the message, but forget the source, so a message from a non-credible source can be remember and thus become more convincing over time.

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Attitude change: Important characteristics of the communicator plus the sleeper effect

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Equity theory Social exchange theory

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Two theories related to the maintenance and dissolution of relationships

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1. Behavior is carefully measured with multiple indicators 2. Attitude is carefully measured with multiple indicators 3. Multiple attitudes and behaviors are assessed

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Three conditions for when attitude is a better predictor of behavior

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People identify their own internal states by observing their external behavior and/or the context in which those behaviors occur

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Bem's (1972) Self-perception theory

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1. People like intelligent and competent people--especially if those intelligent, competent people are seen to make occasional small blunders 2. People like people who like them. 3. Gain-loss effect--People like people who initially didn't like them, and then had a change of heart--especially if the change of heart is seen as gradual and heartfelt.

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Three factors impacting attraction

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Women (a) spend more time engage in conversation, (b) are more likely to talk to other females, and (c) affiliate more than males in public places. Men are more likely to have relationships that are based on shared activities whereas women are more likely to have relationships based on mutual self-disclosure.

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Gender differences in affiliation

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Misery loves miserable company--more likely to want affiliation for self-comparison than for comfort/support when you are in an anxiety-provoking situation.

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How anxiety impacts affiliation

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An innate motive that contribute s to the initiation and maintenance of interpersonal relationships

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Definition of affiliation

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Depressed people are more likely to view their failures as due to stable, internal, global factors as opposed to unstable, external, or specific factors, when compared to non-depressed peers. An exception to the self-serving bias

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Learned helplessnes

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When observing the behavior of strangers, people over estimate the prevalence of global, stable, internal factors (e.g., that stranger cut me off because he is a rude person as opposed to because he was in a hurry or having a bad day). This does not generally apply to attributions about our own behavior.

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Fundamental attribution bias

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Coercive--punishment Reward--reward Expert--superior knowledge Referential--respect Legitimate--authority Informational--specific information Copious Reasons Exist to Readily Leave Indiana

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Six bases of social power

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High self monitors are most concerned about public self and are likely to math their attitudes and behavior to the context. Whereas low self-monitors are more concerned about inner self, and attempt to alter the situation to match their own beliefs and values.

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Self-monitoring (high versus low self-monitors)

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With multi-ethnic groups, make each student responsible for a specific portion of the information so that the entire group must work together and be interdependent in order to learn the entire picture. Reduces stereotyping Increases attraction Enhances cooperation, self-esteem and attitude to school, especially for minority students

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Jigsaw Method of Learning

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Take home: The only way to decrease intergroup conflict was the introduction of a superordinate goal that could only be achieved with mutual cooperation.

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Robber's Cave

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Fundamental religious beliefs Lower level of education Lower intelligence Older age Authoritarianism Traditional attitudes Conservatism Other types of prejudice Being a heterosexual man

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Factors associated with sexual prejudice

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People are most interested in spending time with people who verify their own beliefs about themselves. This is especially true for close relationships.

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Self-verification theory

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People are most likely to compare themselves to other people that are similar to themselves. The exception to this is when comparing yourself for an undesirable behavior/attitude, more likely to seek someone who has a higher degree of that behavior/attitude (e.g., someone who is more angry to yourself)

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Social comparison theory

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External reward kills intrinsic interest

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Overjustification hypothesis

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Innate mechanism that generate emotion in response to unexpected, disruptive events Intense emotion elicited when one partner disrupts everyday routines Explains why there's more intense positive emotions early in a relationship, when the partner is still unpredictable.

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Emotion in relationship model

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The tendency to make different attributions about our own behavior versus the behavior of others. Self-attributions are influence by the outcome. Behavior is situational for negative outcomes. Behavior is dispositional for positive outcomes. Self-serving bias is the tendency to only take credit for our successes.

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Actor-Observer Effect and Self-Serving Bias

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Contact with other groups decreases prejudice and stereotyping only when: 1. Contact is officially sanctioned 2. Sufficient contact is available to allow to disconfirm stereotyped beliefs 3. All groups are of equal power and status 4. Intergroup cooperation is required to meet a mutual goal

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Four factors required for contact hypothesis

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Homophobia: antigay attitudes and behaviors Heterosexism: denigrating nonheterosexual behavior Sexual Prejuidce: negative attitudes based on sexual orientation

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Homophobia vs. Heterosexism vs. Sexual Prejudice

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View minorites as going against traditional american values such as independence, self-reliance, and work ethic. Deny prejucide, but link social problems to internal factors of minorities. Modern racism--don't espouse overt racism, but are against policies such as affirmative action, busing, and welfare.

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Symbolic racis

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No impact on simple tasks; adverse impact on complex tasks. Decreases in mood, health, achievement, increases in delinquency and mortality etc. Perception of control, forewarning, and distraction can offset negative effects. During an enjoyable event--crowding can enhance enjoyment. During a non-enjoyable event--crowding enhances discomfort. Americans require more personal space than do other groups, as do people with low self-esteem and people with authoritarian personalities.

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Effects of crowding

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Affective--prejudice Behavioral--discrimination Cognitive--stereotyping

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Three components of prejudice

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If you are "innoculated" with weak counter arguments, it makes you defensive and you are better able to refuse future stronger arguments and therefore avoid attitudinal change.

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Attitude innoculation

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Affective Behavioral Cognitive

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Three components of attitude

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1. As distance between teacher and learner decreased, so did obedience. 2. Commands given over the phone were less likely to be followed. 3. Moving the experiment from Yale to a warehouse decreased compliance. 4. A confederate refusing to follow commands decreased compliance.

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Four factors that decreased obedience to authority in Milgram

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Convergence (conformity) effect occurs even when the stimulus is unambiguous. If you give your opinion anonymously or if there is a single dissenter, that decreases conformity to group norms.

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Conformity to group norms plus two factors that decrease it.

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AKA the Forer effect People accept vague or very general descriptions as accurate of themselves (e.g., vague horoscopes or personality analyses)

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Barnum Effect

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Our perceptions of equity or fairness in relationships are more important than absolute magnitude of costs/rewards. Can feel either under-benefited or over-benefited and both inequities cause distress.

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Equity Theory

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Dispositional vs. Situational Stable vs. Unstable Specific vs. Global

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Three dimensions of attribution of cause

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Pluralistic ignorance: assistance is unnecessary because others are not offering assistance Evaluation apprehension: fear of social disapproval Diffusion of responsibility: do not acept personal responsibility because assume others will help

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Three factors that lead to bystander apathy

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Media violence: viewing violence does increase aggressiveness and impacts attitudes: judge aggressiveness retaliation more positively overestimate likelihood that one will be a victim of violence increase support of harsher prison sentences Pornography: mild erotica decreases aggression, but violent porn increases aggression and increases acceptable of violence against women

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Effects of media violence and pornography on aggression

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When social influence is seen as a loss of personal freedom, person may respond by doing the opposite of what is desired of them. (e.g., potential audience of censured message is greater and more likely to change belief in the direction of the message)

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Psychological reactance

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Characteristics of the audience Characteristics of the communicator Characteristics of the communication

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Three broad factors that influence attitude change

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1. False consensus bias (overestimate how much others agree with us) 2. Primacy effect (heavily emphasize information received early) 3. Central traits (e.g., warm/cold--carry more weight than other traits) 4. Schema (pay more attention to information that conforms to schema) 5. Social Context (behavior is perceived within the social context -- e.g., pseudopatient study) 6. Base rate fallacy (ignore probability information and instead rely on case specifics)

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Six factors that impact impression formation (impressions of other people)

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Primacy vs. recency effects Accidental messages (e.g., if they are overheard) are more convincing that purposeful messages level of discrepancy between recipient and communication (moderate in general is best, but as credibility increases, so can discrepancy)

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Attitude change: important characteristics of the communication

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Most convincing if message is clear, consistent, not dogmatic people conform to majority for normative reasons the agree with minority for informational reasons

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Minority (opinion) influence on changing majority opinion (factors that increase acceptance)

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Compliance--changes behavior to earn reward of avoid punishment--superficial and no change in attitude Identification--changes behavior to be liked or identified with other person; private change that is only maintained as long as admiration continues Informational: actually accepts beliefs--private change; comes from expert, legitimate, or informational bases of power

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Three effects of social influence

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