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another term for AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH

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AAE

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an abbreviation for AFRICAN AMERICAN VERNACULAR ENGLISH

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AAVE

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in teaching, the placement of students in groups or classes according to their ability in a skill or subject, e.g. based on their language proficiency.

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ability grouping

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groups containing students of different ability levels

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mixed ability groups or heterogeneous groups

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groups composed of students with similar abilities, achievement, etc.

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homogeneous groups

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a process by which an inflected form of a word is formed by changes in the vowel of the stem. For example, the past tense of sing is sang and the plural of goose is geese

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ablaut

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an adjective or adverb that cannot have a comparative or superlative form. For example perfectly and unique already express the idea of "to a maximum degree" and cannot therefore be used with comparative forms as in * most perfectly, or *more unique

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absolute

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a non-finite adverbial clause or other adverbial construction that is not linked syntactically to the main clause, e.g. As far as I can tell, she is not having any problems with the course.

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absolute clause

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in PSYCHOLINGUISTICS, a task in which three stimuli are presented in a trial. A and B are different (for example, the words ramp and lamp) and the subject's task is to choose which of them is matched by the final stimulus.

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ABX discrimination

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the special registers and genres of languages used in the learning of academic subject matter in formal schooling contexts. Mastery of ______________ is associated with literacy and academic achievement and involves learning specific terms, text types, discourse features and speech registers in different fields of study (e.g. history, maths). Learning ______________ is essential for mainstreaming for second language learners and for students studying English for Academic Purposes.

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academic language

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the most frequently occurring vocabulary in academic texts. In English a core ______ of some 600 words (e.g. words such as evidence, estimate, feature, impact, method, release) is common to a wide range of academic fields and accounts for around 10% of the words in any academic texts. Students need to be familiar with this vocabulary if they are to complete academic course successfully. The teaching of ______is an aspect of English for Academic Purposes. ______is determined from an analysis of a corpus or academic English. ______may be compared with Technical Vocabulary, which refers to words specific to a particular topic, field or discipline.

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academic vocabulary

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greater emphasis on a syllable so that it stands out from the other syllables in a word. For example, in English the noun import has this ton the first syllable im-, which the verb import has this on the second syllable -port. This car is a foreign IMport. We imPORT all our coffee. See also PROMINENCE, STRESS

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accent

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in the written form of some languages, particularly in French, a mark which is placed over a vowel. This may show a) a difference in pronunciations (see DIACRITIC). For example, in the French word prés "meadows", the acute ______on the e indicates a different vowel sound from that in près "near" with a grave ______. b) a change in meaning without any change in pronunciation, e.g. French ou "or" and où "where"

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accent

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a particular way of speaking which tells the listener something about the speaker's background. A person's pronunciation may show: a) the region or country they come from, e.g. a northern_____ a southern______ b) what social class they belong to, e.g. a lower middle class ______ c) whether or not the speaker is a native speaker of the language e.g. She speaks English with an ______/ with a German ______. See also DIALECT, SOCIOLECT

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accent

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another term for STRESS

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accent

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discrimination, or bias against speakers with foreign, regional, or social class accents, for example in employment or in legal proceedings. See also FORENSIC LINGUISTICS

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accent discrimination

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programmes designed to help second language learners speak a second or foreign language without showing evidence of a foreign accent. Such programmes reflect the fact that many second language speakers experience discrimination based on their accent. There is no evidence however that reduction in a foreign accent necessarily entails an increase in intelligibility. Hence many educators argue for a greater tolerance of foreign accents. See also English as an International Language

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accent reduction

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(in linguistics) the judgement by the native speakers/users of a speech variety that a certain linguistic item is possible in their variety. The linguistic item could be a written sentence, a spoken utterance, a particular syntactic structure, a word or a way of pronouncing a certain sound. The speech community where such an item is considered ____________could be all the speakers of a region or social class or, alternatively, just the members of an in-group, for example teenagers belonging to a rock club who have created their own in-language. A linguistic item which is ____________to one group or variety need not be ____________to another, for example, speakers of some varieties of English accept such expressions as: I want for him to come and We were visiting with (meaning "calling on") Aunt Lizzie, but speakers of other varieties would not accept these expressions and use instead: I want him to come and We were visiting Aunt Lizzie. Sometimes linguistic items are ____________ in certain situations and not in others. . For example a teenager may tell a friend: I nearly freaked out when I saw that jerk, and in that situation it would be ____________. It would usually be un____________ if the utterance was used in a formal address at a special function (except, of course, if it was said jokingly). The terms ____________ and un____________ are different from grammatical as they cover a wider range of linguistic units and situations. And because they do not have prescriptive overtones they are also preferred to expressions such as CORRECT/INCORRECT, SUBSTANDARD, right/wrong. See also APPROPRIATENESS, CONVERSATIONAL RULES

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acceptable

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one of several types of tasks (or tests) that require subjects to judge whether particular sentences are possible or not in either their native language or a language they are learning. If the task instructions specify that subjects are to judge whether or not a sentence is acceptable, the task is called an ____________

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acceptability judgement task

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if subjects are asked to judge whether a particular sentence is grammatical

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grammaticality judgement task

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in COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING, locating or obtaining information or data

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access

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means locating information in sequence, for example by fast forwarding an audio cassette

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sequential access

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means locating information directly, in such a way that access time is not dependent on its location

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direct access or random access

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in WORD FORMATION, a non-occurring but possible form, for example unsad as an antonym of sad. When learners produce such forms, these are considered to be examples of OVER GENERALIZATION

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accidental gap

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a theory that seeks to explain shifts in the style of speaking people make such as when a person changes their way of speaking to make it sound more like or less like the speech of the person they are talking to. In communication between native and non-native speakers or between second language speakers with different levels of proficiency, ____________ may serve to promote intelligibility. See also ACCENT

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accommodation

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a type of accommodation. This is a strategy in which people adapt to each other's speech by adjusting such things as speech rate, pauses, length of utterance, and pronunciation For example, a teacher may use simpler words and sentence structures when he/she is talking to a class of young children.

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convergence

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a type of accommodation. This involves emphasizing speech and non-verbal differences between the speaker and other interlocutors. For example, a person may exaggerate their rural accent because they are annoyed by the attitude of someone from the city.

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divergence

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the answerability of all those involved in applied linguistics for the quality of their work. For example, text developers need to be able to explain the rationale behind the assessment techniques they use and their results to test takers and test users; language programme administrators are _________ to clients who pay for special courses, as well as to students for the quality of instruction; and public school programme administrators are _________ to parents and other members of the public. _________ includes the documentation and reporting of procedures used to develop curriculum and courses and of practices used in the hiring of teachers, selection of materials, evaluation of teachers and courses and the assessment of learners and learning outcomes.

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accountability

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a process in which changes in the language, culture, and system of values of a group happen through interaction with another group with a different language, culture, and system of values. For example, in second language learning, ____________may affect how well one group (e.g. a group of immigrants in a country) learn the language of another (e.g. the dominant group). see also _______________ MODEL, ASSIMILATION, SOCIAL DISTANCE

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acculturation

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in second language acquisition, the theory that the rate and level of ultimate success of second language acquisition in naturalistic settings (without instruction) is a function of the degree to which learners acculturate to the target language community. Acculturation may involve a large number of social and psychological variables, but is generally considered to be the process through which and individual takes on the beliefs, values and culture of a new group

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acculturation model

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also known as difficulty order. Some linguistic items, forms, and rule seem to be consistently produced with higher accuracy than others by language learners, permitting such items to be ordered with respect to their relative difficulty. _____________s based on CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH are sometimes taken as evidence for an order of acquisition, although such claims need to be reinforced through LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH

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accuracy order

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the form of a noun or noun phrase which shows that it functions as the direct object of the verb in the sentence. For example, in the German sentence Ursula kaufte einen neuen Tisch (Ursula bought a new table) in the noun phrase einen neuen Tish, the article ein and the adjective new have the inflectional ending -en to show that the noun phrase is in the ______________ because it is the direct object of the verb. See also CASE

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accusative case

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a test designed to measure how much language learners have successfully learned with specific reference to a particular course, textbook, or programme of instruction, thus a type of CRITERION REFERENCED TEST. An ______________ is typically given at the end of a course, whereas when administrated periodically throughout a course of instruction to measure language learning up to that point, it is alternatively called a PROGRESS TEST. Its results are often used to make advancement or graduation decisions regarding learners or judge the effectiveness of a programme, which may lead to curriculum changes. The difference between this and a more general type of test called a PROFICIENCY TEST is that the latter is not linked to any particular course of instruction and is thus a type of NORM-REFERENCED TEST. For example, an ______________ might be a listening comprehension test if all of its items are based on a particular set of dialogues in a textbook. In contrast, a proficiency test might use similar test items but would not be linked to any particular textbook or language SYLLABUS.

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achievement test

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an aspect of the acoustic signal in speech which is used to distinguish between phonetic features. For example VOICE ONSET TIME is an _________ which is used to distinguish between the sounds /t/ and /d/.

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acoustic cue

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(in listening comprehension) the ability to hear and identify only some of the sounds that are being spoken. For example, when someone is learning a foreign language, the speech sounds of their native language may act as a filter, making it difficult for them to hear and identify new or unfamiliar sounds in the foreign language.

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acoustic filtering

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a word made from the initials of the phrase it stands for, for example "IPA" for International Phonetics Association or International Phonetic Alphabet

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acronym

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proficiency descriptions developed under the auspices of the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL). Since their latest revision in 1996, the guidelines consist of descriptions of ten proficiency levels: Novice Low, Novice Mid, Novice High, Intermediate Low, Intermediate Mid, Intermediate High, Advanced Low, Advanced Mid, Advanced High, and Superior

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ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines

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a structured interview carried out to assess a learner's ability to use the target language in terms of the levels described by the ACTFL PROFICIENCY GUIDELINES, used as an assessment of speaking proficiency

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ACTFL Oral Proficiency Interview

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1. research that has the primary goal of finding ways of solving problems, bringing about social change or practical action, in comparison with research that seeks to discover scientific principles or develop general laws and theories 2. (In teacher education) teacher-initiated classroom research that seeks to increase the teacher's understanding of classroom teaching and learning and to bring about improvements in classroom practices. ______________ typically involves small-scale investigative projects in the teacher's own classroom, and consists of the following cycle of activities. a. the teacher (or a group of teachers) selects an aspect of classroom behaviour to examine in more detail (e.g. the teacher's use of questions) b. selects a suitable research technique (e.g. recording classroom lessons) c. collects data and analyzes them d. develops an action plan to help bring about a change in classroom behavior (e.g. to reduce the frequency of questions that the teacher answers himself or herself). e. acts to implement the plan f. observes the effect of the action plan on the behaviour

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action research

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also productive receptive language knowledge the ability of a person to actively produce their own speech and writing as compared to their ability to understand the speech and writing of other people. In foreign language learning, an active vocabulary of about 3000 to 5000 words, and a passive vocabulary of about 5000 to 10,000 words is regarded as the intermediate to upper intermediate level of proficiency.

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active/passive language knowledge

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the ability of a person to actively produce their own speech and writing

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active language knowledge

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the ability of a person to understand the speech and writing of other people

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passive language knowledge

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words people can understand. Native speakers of a language can understand more words than they actively use. Some people have a _____________ of up to 100,000 words. In foreign language learning, a ___________ of about 5000 to 10,000 words is regarded as the intermediate to upper intermediate level of proficiency

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passive vocabulary

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words people can use. Some people have a ___________ of between 10,000 and 20,000 words. In foreign language learning, an ___________ of about 3000 to 5000 words is regarded as the intermediate to upper intermediate level of proficiency

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active vocabulary

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informal translation of spoken interaction, for example during social events or business meetings see also INTERPRETATION

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ad hoc interpreting

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changes made in the use of published teaching materials in order to make them more suitable for a group or learners, e.g. by supplementing, modifying or deleting parts of a textbook.

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adaptation

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also equilibration in Piagetian theory, a cover term for two ways in which a child adapts to his or her environment: assimilation, interpreting new information in terms of the child's current knowledge, and accommodation, changing the child's cognitive structures to understand new information

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adaptation

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in Piagetian theory: interpreting new information in terms of the child's current knowledge

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assimilation

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In Piagetian theory: changing the child's cognitive structure to understand new information

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accommodation

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a model of skill learning, involving a progression from a controlled stage based on DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE to an autonomous stage based on PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE. Processes involved in this development include proceduralization (the translation of propositional knowledge into behavioural sequences) chunking (the binding together of commonly occurring units, which allows more information to be maintained in WORKING MEMORY), GENERALIZATION, rule narrowing and rule strengthening. Language acquisition is seen in this model as a type of skill learning.

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adaptive control of thought

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the translation of propositional knowledge into behavioural sequences

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proceduralization

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the binding together of commonly occurring units, which allows for more information to be maintained in WORKING MEMORY

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chunking

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a from of individually tailored testing in which test items are selected from an ITEM BANK where test items are stored in rank order with respect to their ITEM DIFFICULTY and presented to test takers during the test on the basis of their responses to previous test items, until it is determined that sufficient information regarding test takers' abilities has been collected. For example, when a multiple-choice adaptive vocabulary test is administered, a test taker is initially presented with an item of medium difficulty. If he or she answers it correctly, then a slightly more difficult item is presented, whereas if the item is answered incorrectly, then a slightly easier item is presented. An ORAL PROFICIENCY INTERVIEW can be viewed as a type of _______________ in the sense that an interviewer (i.e. tester) adjusts the difficulty level of language on the basis of an evolving assessment of the interviewee's (i.e. test taker's) language ability. _______________ finds its most promising application in COMPUTER _______________ .

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adaptive testing

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also additive bilingualism a form of BILINGUAL EDUCATION in which the language of instruction is not the mother tongue or home language of the children, and is not intended to replace it. In an _______________ programme the first language is maintained and supported. For example, the bilingual programmes in French for English-speaking Canadians are intended to give the children a second language, not to replace English with French. When the language of instruction is likely to replace the children's first language, this is called subtractive bilingualism see also IMMERSION PROGRAMME

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additive bilingual education

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When the language of instruction is likely to replace the children's first language

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subtractive bilingualism

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also address term, form/term of address the word or words used to address somebody in speech or writing. The way in which people address one another usually depends on their age, sex, social group, and personal relationship. For example, many languages have different second person pronoun forms which are used according to whether the speaker wants to address someone politely or more informally, e.g. in German Sie-du, in French Vous-tu, in Spanish usted-tu and in Mandarin Chinese nin-ni (you). If a language has only one second person pronoun form, e.g. English you, other ______________________s are used to show formality or informality, e.g. sir, Mr Brown, Brown, Bill. In some languages, such as Chinese dialects and Japanese, words expressing relationship, e.g. father, mother, aunt, or position, e.g. teacher, lecturer, are used as address forms to show respect and/or signal the formality of the situation, for example: Mandarin Chinese: Baba quing chi--father please eat. Japanese: sensei dozo! (a polite request). teacher/sir please! The ______________________s of a language are arranged into a complex address system with its own rules which need to be acquired if a person wants to communicate appropriately. see also COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

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address form

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how the address forms of a language are arranged, and their rules

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address system

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a pair of two related utterances by two different speakers. The second utterance is always a response to the first. In the following example, speaker A makes a complaint, and speaker B replies with a denial: A: You left the light on. B: It wasn't me! The sequence of complaint-denial is an ______________________. Other examples of ______________________ are greeting-greeting, question-answer, invitation-acceptance/non-acceptance, offer-acceptance/non-acceptance, complaint-apology. ______________________ are part of the structure of conversation and are studied in CONVERSATIONAL ANALYSIS.

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adjacency pair

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(in GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY) one of the conditions (PARAMETERS) which may vary from one language to another. For example, English requires that the element in the sentence which "assigns" the case (see CASE ANSWER) has to be next (adjacent) to the noun phrase that receives the case, e.g.: she liked him very much--verb (case assigner) noun phrase (object case) but not: she liked very much him. Other languages, such as French, do not have this restriction. J'aime beaucoup la France. In second language acquisition research, investigations have been make into this variation of the adjacency condition. For example, how do native speakers of French, which has a [-adjacency] parameter, deal with a language which has a [+adjacency] parameter, such as English? Do they transfer their native [-adjacency] condition into English or not? See also PRO-DROP PARAMETER.

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adjacency parameter

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in some linguistic theories, the concept that two syntactic constituents must be next (adjacent) to each other and cannot be separated by other constituents. For example, in English, a noun phrase (NP) complement must be adjacent to its verb, e.g. She threw the parcel into the car--verb NP complement. but not: she threw into the car the parcel. verb NP complement. see also ADJACENCY PARAMETER.

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adjacency principle

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the accent, e.g. on French prés "meadows"

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acute accent

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an adjective used as a noun, e.g. the poor, the rich, the sick, the old. see also SUBSTANTIVE

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adjectival noun

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a word that describes the thing, quality, state, or action which a noun refers to. For example black in a black hat is an ___________. In English ____________s usually have the following properties: a. they can be used before a noun, e.g. a heavy bag b. they can be used after be, become, seem, etc. as complements, e.g. the bag is heavy c. They can be used after a noun as a complement, e.g. these books make the bag heavy d. they can be modified by an adverb. e.g. a very heavy bag e they can be used in a comparative or superlative form, e.g. the bag seems heavier now see also COMPLEMENT, COMPARATIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE ___________

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adjective

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a phrase that functions as an adjective. For example The woman in the corner is from Italy.

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adjective phrase

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ADVERBIALS may be classified as ________s,conjuncts, or disjuncts. An __________ is part of the basic structure of the clause or sentence in which it occurs and modifies the verb. Adverbs of time, place, frequency, degree and manner are examples of __________. He died in England. I have almost finished.

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adjunct

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not part of the basic structure of a clause or sentence. They show how what is said in the sentence containing the _____________ connects with what is said in another sentence or sentences. Altogether it was a happy week. However the weather was not good.

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conjunct

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adverbs which show the speaker's attitude to or evaluation of what is said in the rest of the sentence. Naturally I paid for my own meal. I had to pay for my own meal, unfortunately.

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disjunct

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another word for disjunct

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sentential adverb

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what adverbials may be classified into

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adjunct conjunct disjunct

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in teaching language for academic purposes, an approach to Content Based Instruction in which a language is linked with a content course in an academic area, such as an English course that is linked to a course in economics. The ______________ is designed to give students the language skills necessary for success in the content course.

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adjunct course

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(in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR) a process by which one CONSTITUENT, such as a word or phrase is adjoined or attached to another to form an extended constituent. For example, in the sentence, He shouldn't do that, we can say that the negative not (in the contracted form) has been joined to the auxiliary should to form the extended auxiliary shouldn't. __________ is governed by rules that may vary from language to language

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adjunction

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a test designed to provide information about a test taker's likely success in a particular programme before entry into the programme in order to decide whether to admit the applicant or not, thus also called a screening test.

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admissions test

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another name for admissions test

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screening test

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a word or phrase which occurs next to a noun and which gives further information about it. For example, an __________ may be: an adjective, e.g. blue in the blue sea, b another noun, e.g. jade in the jade statue, c a phrase, e.g. at the corner in the shop at the corner. An __________ is a type of MODIFIER

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adnominal

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a cover term for PREPOSITION and postposition

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adposition

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(in teaching) an activity which helps students organize their thoughts and ideas as a preparation for learning or studying something. For example, a discussion which takes place before students listen to a lecture and which is intended to help them follow the lecture more easily, or a preview of the main ideas covered in a reading passage before reading it

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advance organizer

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a word that describes or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another ___________, or a sentence, and which answers such questions as how? Where? or when? In English, many ___________ have an -ly ending

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adverb

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e.g. carefully, slowly

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adverbs of manner

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e.g. here, there, locally

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adverbs of place

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e.g. now, hourly, yesterday

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adverbs of time

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three types of adverbs

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adverbs of manner adverbs of place adverbs of time

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a phrase or clause which functions as an adverb

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adverb phrase adverb clause

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a word such as in, on, back, when it modifies a verb rather than a noun. Words like in, out, up, down, on, may belong grammatically with both nouns (e.g. in the box, on the wall) and verbs (e.g. come in, eat up, wake up, die away). When they are linked with nouns, they are noun as PREPOSITIONs and when they are linked with verbs, they are known as adverb particles. The combination of verb+_____________ is known as PHRASAL VERB.

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adverb particle

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another name for adverb particle

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prepositional adverb

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any word, phrase, or clause that functions like an ADVERB. An adverb is a single-word __________.

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adverbial

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a clause which functions as an adverb, for example: When I arrived, I went straight to my room. (__________ of time). Wherever we looked there was dust. (__________ of place). We painted the walls yellow to brighten the room. (__________ of purpose).

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adverbial clause

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a phrase that functions as an adverb. For example, After dinner, we went to the movies

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adverbial phrase

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In education, the process of promoting change through demonstrating to others that the proposed changes are desirable, feasible, affordable, and appropriate. In planning or implementing curriculum and other kinds of educational changes it is often necessary to gain the support of influential people or groups who have resources, power, or authority to facilitate proposed changes. __________ may include political action and lobbying but also involves understanding the attitudes and positions of key decision makers and stakeholders and informing them of information and arguments to persuade them of the educational, social, economic and other benefits of proposed changes. See also situational analysis.

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advocacy

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a term referring to a number of emotional factors that may influence language learning and use. These include basic personality traits such as shyness, long-term but changeable factors such as positive and negative LANGUAGE ATTITUDES and constantly fluctuating states such as enthusiasm, ANXIETY, boredom, apathy, or elation. One theory suggest that affective states are largely determined by the balance between the subjectively assessed level of challenge in an activity and the subjectively assessed level of skill that one brings to that activity. For example, when faced with classroom tasks that are higher than their level of skill, language learners feel anxious and frustrated; when given tasks that are well below their ability level, they feel bored; giving learners interesting tasks that are challenging but within their ability is most likely to elicit a positive affective response.

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affect

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Negative attitudes (including a lack of motivation or self-confidence and anxiety) are said to act as a filter, preventing the learner from making use of INPUT, and thus hindering success in language learning.

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affective filter

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a hypothesis proposed by Krashen and associated with his monitor model of second language development (see MONITOR HYPOTHESIS). They hypothesis is based on the theory of an affective filter, which states that successful second language acquisition depends on the learner's feelings. Negative attitudes (including a lack of motivation or self-confidence and anxiety) are said to act as a filter, preventing the learner from making use of INPUT, and thus hindering success in language learning.

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affective filter hypothesis

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the selection of one variety of speech as a model for learning the language in preference to other possible models because of affective factors. For example, second language learners might hear English spoken by many different groups (e.g. parents, teachers, different social and ethnic groups) but model their own speech on only one of these, such as the speech of their friends of the same group (=their PEER GROUP).

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affective filtering

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another term for CONNOTATION

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affective meaning

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a letter or sound, or groups of letters or sound (=MORPHEME), which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word. ____________s are BOUND FORMS that can be added to the beginning of a word (= a prefix), to the end of a word (=a suffix), within a word (= an infix)

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affix

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The three types of affix

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infix prefix suffix

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an affix added to the beginning of a word. e.g. English un-, which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite: kind-unkind

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prefix

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an affix added to the end of a word. e.g. English -ness, which usually changes an adjective into a noun: kind--kindness

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suffix

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an afffix with an word. e.g. Tagalog -um- which shows that a verb is in the past tense: sulat "to write" -sumulat "wrote"

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infix

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a speech sound (a CONSONANT) which is produced by stopping the airstream from the lungs, and then slowly releasing it with friction. The first part of an affricate is similar to a STOP, the second part is similar to a FRICATIVE. For example, in English the "ch" in child and the "j" in jam are ______________s

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affricate

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adjective form of "affricate"

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affricated

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AAE

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African American English

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AAVE

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African American Vernacular English

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BE

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Black English

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BEV

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Black English Vernacular

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Other terms for African American English (4)

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African American Vernacular English, Black English, Black English Vernacular, Ebonics

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a variety of English spoken by some African Americans, particularly those living in concentrated urban areas. There are conflicting views on the origins of ___________. Some claim that it is similar to varieties of English spoken by whites in the southern states (therefore, clearly, a dialect of English), while others consider it to be a CREOLE, independently developed from Standard English, and more deserving of the word Language than dialect. ___________ has been the focus of national attention in the US beginning with the onset of the civil rights movement in the 1960s. ___________ has sometimes been erroneously linked with inferior genetic intelligence, cultural deprivation, or laziness and viewed as an educational problem. However, researchers have shown that ___________ has a structure and system of its own, no less complex than other language varieties. Some of the differences between ___________ and Standard American English (SAE) are: In phonology ___________ makes use of an l-deletion rule, creating identical pairs such as toll and toe, and a consonant cluster simplification rule that creates identical pairs such as pass and passed. In syntax, ___________ speakers can delete the word to be in the same environments in which SAE permits to be contracted, for example the verb is in He is nice can be contracted to He's nice in SAE and deleted (He nice) in ___________. In semantics, ___________ speakers can make distinctions that are not easily made in SAE. For example, the invariant form be in John be happy conveys the idea that John is always happy (a different meaning from John is happy or John happy), and the sentence John BEEN married (with stress on been) conveys the idea that John has been married for a long time (not that he has been married but perhaps is not now.)

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African American English

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SAE

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Standard American English

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(in some grammars) the noun or noun phrase which refers to the person or animal which performs the action of the verb. For example, in the English sentences: Anthea cut the grass. The grass was cut by Anthea. Anthea is the ___________. The term ___________ is sometimes used only for the noun or the noun phrases which follows by in passive sentences, even if it does not refer to the performer of an action, e.g. everyone in She was admired by everyone.

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agent

question

(in CASE GRAMMAR) the noun or noun phrase that refers to the person or animal who performs or initiates the action of a verb is in the ___________. For example, in: Tom pruned the roses. Tom is in the ___________. But the subject of the verb is not necessarily always in the ___________ . In the sentence: Tom loves roses. Tom does not perform an action, but his attitude to roses is mentioned. Tom in this sentence is therefore not ___________but dative.

answer

agentive case

question

the object of a verb which performs the action of a verb. For example in the sentence: Fred galloped the horse. Fred initiates the action, but it is the horse which actually gallops.

answer

agentive object

question

a language in which various affixes may be added to the stem of a word to add to its meaning or to show its grammatical function. For example in Swahili wametulipa "they have paid us" consits of wa (they) + me (perfective marker)+ tu (us) + lipa (pay). Languages which are highly agglutinating include Finnish, Hungarian, Swahili, and Turkish, although there is no clear cut distinction between _______________s, INFLECTING LANGUAGES, and also ISOLATING LANGUAGES

answer

agglutinating language

question

another term for agglutinating language

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agglutinative language

question

sometimes agglutinating languages and inflecting languages are called...

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synthetic languages

question

in general, two elements __________ if they have at least one feature in common. For example, in English the third person singular subject John in the sentence John goes to work early must be followed by the form of the verb go that is also marked for third person singular. In some languages, such as Spanish and Arabic, adjectives must __________ in both gender and number with the nouns they modify. In GOVERNMENT/BINDING THEORY __________ is considered to be the relation between a specifier head (AGR) and its specifier. __________ in this sense includes both subject-verb __________ and assignment of structure.

answer

agreement

question

In Government binding theory, the relation between a specifier head (______) and its specifier

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AGR

question

another term for CONCORD

answer

agreement

question

an abbreviation for ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

answer

AI

question

an explicit set of instructions that specify in detail the steps to go through in order to perform some operation. For example, changing a declarative sentence such as "She went into the store" into an interrogative sentence "Where did she go?" according to a series of steps as a classroom exercise is an example of applying __________s

answer

algorithm

question

the repetition of an initial sound, usually a consonant, in two or more words that occur close together. For example: Down the drive dashed dashing Dan.

answer

alliteration

question

any of the different forms of a MORPHEME. For example, in English the plural morpheme is often shown in writing by adding -s to the end of a word, e.g. cat--cats. Sometimes this plural morpheme is pronounced /z/ e.g. dog --dogs, and sometimes it is pronounced /Iz/ e.g. class--classes. /s/, /z/, and /Iz/ all have the same grammatical function in these examples, they all show the plural; they are all __________s of the plural morpheme.

answer

allomorph

question

adjective form of allophone

answer

allophonic

question

any of the different variants of a phoneme. The different ____________ s of a phoneme are perceptibly different, but similar to each other in different phonetic environments that can be stated in terms of phonological rules. For example, the English phoneme /p/ is aspirated when it occurs at the beginning of a syllable (as in pot) but unaspirated when it is preceded by /s/ (as in spot) and may be unreleased when it occurs at the end of an utterance (as in "he's not here type"). these aspirated, unaspirated, and unreleased sounds are all heard and identified as the phoneme /p/ and not as /b/; they are all ____________ s of /p/.

answer

allophone

question

For example, the phoneme /p/ when it occurs at the end of an utterance (as in "he's not her type").

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unreleased

question

another term for SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL

answer

alpha

question

adjective form of alphabet

answer

alphabetic

question

a series of letters which are used to write a language. The English ________ uses roman script and consists of 26 letters--a,b,c, etc. The Russian ________ uses cyrillic script and consists of 31 letters The Arabic alphabet uses arabic script and consists of 29 letters

answer

alphabet

question

the type of script used in the English alphabet

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roman script

question

type of script used in the Russian alphabet

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cyrillic script

question

type of script used in the Arabic alphabet

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arabic script

question

a method of teaching children to read. It is used in teaching reading in the mother tongue. Children are taught the names of the letters of the alphabet--a "ay", b "bee", c "see", etc.--and when they see a new or unfamiliar word, e.g. bag, they repeat the letter names--"bee ay gee". It is though that this "spelling" of the word helps the child to recognize it.

answer

alphabetic method

question

a writing system made up of separate letters which represent sounds (see alphabet) some examples of ___________________ are a) Roman (or Latin) script, used for many European languages including English. It has also been adopted for many non-European languages, e.g. Swahili, Indonesian, and Turkish b) Arabic script, used for Arabic languages such as Persian, Urdu and Malay, which also uses roman script c) Cyrillic Script, used for Russian and languages such as Ukrainian and Bulgarian

answer

alphabetic writing

question

Examples or 3 different types of alphabetic writing

answer

Arabic script, Cyrillic Script, Roman Script

question

Two other terms for alternate form reliability

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equivalent form reliability, parallel form reliability

question

one approach to estimate the RELIABILITY of a test. In this approach, two or more forms of a test that are different but equivalent in content and difficulty are administered to the same group of test takers. Then a CORRELATION COEFFICIENT between the total scores of the alternate forms of the test is calculated. The resulting correlation coefficient is interpreted as a numerical index of the extent to which the alternate forms are equivalent to each other or consistent in measuring test takers' abilities. For practical reasons, however, this method of assessing test reliability is used less frequently than an INTERNAL CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY approach.

answer

alternate form reliability

question

Two other terms for alternate forms

answer

equivalent forms, parallel forms

question

two or more different forms of a test designed to measure exactly the same skills or abilities, which use the same methods of testing, and which are of equal length and difficulty. In general, if test takers receive similar scores on _________ of a test, this suggests that the test is reliable.

answer

alternate forms

question

the relationship between the different forms of a linguistic unit is called ________. The term is used especially in MORPHOLOGY and in PHONOLOGY. For example, the related vowels /i:/ and /e/ in: deceive--deception receive--reception are in ________. The ALLOPHONES of a PHONEME and the ALLOMORPHS of a MORPHEME are also in ________ or ________.

answer

alternation

question

the name for the specific linguistic units in alternation

answer

alternant

question

various types of assessment procedures that are seen as alternatives or complements to traditional standardized testing. Traditional modes of assessment are thought not to capture important information about test takers' abilities in a L2 and are also not thought to reflect real-life conditions. Procedures used in ________ include self-assessment, peer assessment, portfolios, leaner diaries or journals, student-teacher conferences, interviews, and observations

answer

alternative assessment

question

types of alternative assessment (7)

answer

interviews, learner diaries or journals, observation, peer assessment, portfolios, self-assessment, student-teacher conferences

question

describes a speech sound (a consonant) which is produced by the front of the tongue touching, or nearly touching, the gum ridge behind the upper teeth (the _______ ridge). For example, in English, the t in tin and the d in din are _______ stops. In English, _______ stops are made with the tip of the tongue, but _______ FRICATIVES-- the s in sip, and the z in zoo are made with the part of the tongue which is just behind the tip, the blade.

answer

alveolar

question

the gum ridge behind the upper teeth

answer

alveolar ridge

question

/t/ and /d/

answer

alveolar stops

question

/s/ and /z/

answer

alveolar fricatives

question

another name for alveolar ridge

answer

alveolum

question

the ability to function equally well in two or more languages across a wide range of domains

answer

ambi-bilingualism

question

adjective form of ambiguity

answer

ambiguous

question

Noun. A word, phrase, or sentence which has more than one meaning is said to be __________. An example of grammatical __________ is the sentence: The Lamb is too hot to eat. Which can mean either: a) the lamb is so hot that it cannot eat anything or: b) the cooked lamb is too hot for someone to eat is. There are several types of lexical ___________. a) a word can have several meanings, e.g. face meaning "human face", "face of a clock", "cliff face" (see also POLYSEMY) b) two or more words can some the same but have different meanings, e.g. bank in to put money in a bank, the bank of a river (see also HOMONYMS) Usually, additional information either from the speaker or writer or from the situation indicates which meaning is intended. __________ is used extensively in creative writing, especially in poetry

answer

ambiguity

question

For example: The Lamb is too hot to eat. Which can mean either: a) the lamb is so hot that it cannot eat anything or: b) the cooked lamb is too hot for someone to eat is.

answer

grammatical ambiguity

question

a) a word can have several meanings, e.g. face meaning "human face", "face of a clock", "cliff face" (see also POLYSEMY) b) two or more words can some the same but have different meanings, e.g. bank in to put money in a bank, the bank of a river (see also HOMONYMS)

answer

lexical ambiguity

question

an acronym for American sign Language

answer

Ameslan

question

a part of the brain believed to be important in directing attention and attaching emotional value to stimuli

answer

amygdala

question

in language learning, a process by which unknown forms are constructed according to the patterns of other forms that the learner knows. For example, knowing that the past tense of sing is sang, a learner might guess by ________that the past tense of fling is flang.

answer

analogy

question

a statistical procedure used to statistically equate groups in order to control the effects of one or more varriables, called COVARIATES in this type of analysis. For example, if we were comparing the effect of a teacher method on three groups of participants, and one group had a higher MEAN IQ than the others, analysis of covariance could be used to make the groups equivalent by adjusting the effects of IQ.

answer

analysis of covariance

question

a statistical procedure for testing whether the difference among the MEANS of two or more groups is significant, for example to compare the effectiveness of a teaching method on three different age groups.

answer

analysis of variance

question

(in QUALITATIVE RESEARCH), the process of taking one case of data, developing a working hypothesis to explain it, examining additional cases to see if the hypothesis explains them, revising the hypothesis as appropriate, and searching for negative cases to disprove the hypothesis. Although not all qualitative research follows this approach, this inductive cyclical approach to data analysis and theory building has been highly influential

answer

analytic induction

question

another term for ISOLATING LANGUAGE

answer

analytic language

question

in testing, a method of scoring that separates and weighs different features of the test taker's performance on a writing or speaking task and assigns separate scores to each feature. The commonly analyzed features in writing tasks include content, organization, cohesion, style, register, vocabulary, grammar, spelling and mechanics, whereas those in speaking tasking include pronunciation, fluency, accuracy, and appropriateness

answer

analytic scoring

question

some of the commonly analyzed features in writing tasks for analytic scoring (9)

answer

cohesion, content, grammar, mechanics, organization, register, spelling, style, vocabulary

question

some of the commonly analyzed features in speaking tasks for analytic scoring (4)

answer

accuracy, appropriateness, fluency, pronunciation

question

a process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in the conversation. For example, in : Tom likes ice cream, but bill can't eat it, the word it refers back to ice cream. It is a substitute for ice cream, which is called the ANTECEDENT of it. Some verbs may be _________, for example, the word do in: Mary works hard and so does Doris. Does is _____ and is a substitute for works. In BINDING THEORY, the term ________ refers to somewhat different concept, and is subject to certain restrictions

answer

anaphora

question

a word or phrase which refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in the conversation.

answer

anaphor

question

adjective term for anaphor

answer

anaphoric

question

the word in the text or conversation that the anaphor refers back to.

answer

antecedent

question

an abbreviation for analysis of covariance

answer

ANCOVA

question

a noun which refers to a living being, for example persons, animals, fish, etc. For example, the English nouns woman and fish

answer

animate noun

question

nouns like stone and water

answer

inanimate noun

question

feelings of social uncertainty or dissatisfaction which people who do not have a strong attachments to a particular social group may have. ________ has been studied as an affective variable in second/foreign language learning. In learning a new language people may begin to move away from their own language and culture, and have feelings of insecurity. At the same time they may not be sure about their feelings towards the new language group. Feelings of _________ may be highest when a high level of language ability is reached. This may lead a person to look for chances to speak their own language as a relief.

answer

anomie

question

another word for anomie

answer

anomy

question

an abbreviation for ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE

answer

ANOVA

question

a brand of linguistics which studies the relationship between language and culture in a community, e.g. it's traditions, beliefs and family structure. For example, ___________ have studied the way in which relationships within the family are expressed in different cultures (kinship terminology), and they have studied how people communicate with one another at certain social and cultural events, e.g. ceremonies, rituals, and meetings, and then relate this to the overall structure of the particular community. Some areas of ___________ are closely related to areas of SOLIOLINGUISTICS and the ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION

answer

anthropological linguistics

question

the way in which relationships within the family are expressed in different cultures

answer

kinship terminology

question

a word which is opposite in meaning to another word. For example, in English dead and alive, and big and small are ___________ . A distinction is sometimes made between pairs like dead and alive and pairs like big and small, according to whether or not the words are gradable. A person who is not dead must be alive, but something which is not big is not necessarily small, it may be somewhere between the two sizes. Dead and alive are called commentaries (or ungradeable ___________ ). Big and small are called gradable ___________ or a gradable pair. Some linguists use the term ___________ to mean only gradable pairs

answer

antonym

question

the general phenomenon of antonyms

answer

antonymy

question

antonyms where if it is not one, it must be the other. For example, dead and alive

answer

complementaries

question

another name for complementaries

answer

ungradable antonyms

question

antonyms like big and small, where something which is big is not necessary small, but may be somewhere between the two sizes

answer

gradable antonyms

question

another name for gradable antonyms

answer

gradable pairs

question

the tip of the tongue

answer

apex

question

adjective form of aphasia

answer

aphasic

question

the loss of the ability to use and understand language, usually caused by damage to the brain. This loss may be total or partial, and may affect spoken and/or written language. There are many different types. It can be studied to discover how the brain processes language

answer

aphasia

question

another word for aphasia

answer

dyphasia

question

difficulty in writng

answer

agraphia

question

difficulty in reading

answer

alexia

question

difficulty in using proper nouns

answer

anomia

question

difficulty in using grammatical words like prepositions, articles, etc.

answer

agrammatism

question

4 different types of aphasia

answer

agrammatism, agraphia, alexia, anomia

question

describes a speech sound (a consonant) which is produced by the tip of the tongue (the apex) touching some part of the mouth.

answer

apical

question

For example, in English, the /t/ in /tIn/

answer

apical stop

question

if the tongue touches the upper teeth, the sounds are sometimes called_______, e.g. French and German /t/ and /d/.

answer

apico-dental

question

If the tongue touches the gum ridge behind the upper teeth (the alveolar ridge) the sounds are sometimes called ________, as in English /t/ and /d/

answer

apico-alveolar

question

3 examples of apical

answer

apical stop, apico-alveolar, apico-dental

question

the ending 's which is added to nouns in English to indicate possession. For example: Michael's son, the director's car

answer

apostrophe s

question

1. the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching 2. the study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems, such as LEXICOGRAPHY, TRANSLATION, SPEECH PATHOLOGY, etc. Applied linguistics uses information from sociology, psychology, anthropology, and INFORMATION THEORY as well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such as syllabus design, SPEECH THERAPY, LANGUAGE PLANNING, STYLISTICS, etc.

answer

applied linguistics

question

research that is designed to generate knowledge or validate theories that may not have any direct application

answer

basic research

question

research designed to produce practical applications, contrasted with basic research, i.e. research that is designed to generate knowledge or validate theories that may not have any direct application. ACTION RESEARCH is a form of ___________-. Second language acquisition is considered a type of ___________ by some and basic research by others

answer

applied research

question

When two words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence have the same REFERENCE, they are said to be in __________. For example, in the sentence: My sister, Helen Wilson, will travel with me. My sister and Helen Wilson refer to the same person, and are called _____________. The sentence can be rewritten with either of the two ____________________ missing, and still make sense. My sister will travel with me. Helen Wilson will travel with me.

answer

apposition

question

Used to describe a word or phrase that is in apposition (i.e. has the same reference as another word or phrase

answer

appositive

question

regular review and assessment of a teacher's performance. This may include _______ by a supervisor, by a colleague, by students, or self-____________

answer

appraisal

question

In language teaching, procedures that an institution, school, or organization has in place to provide for regular review and assessment of a teacher's performance. This may include _______ by a supervisor, by a colleague, by students, or self-____________

answer

appraisal system

question

appraisal system (in language teaching)

answer

procedures that an institution has in place for regular assessment of teachers' performance

question

4 examples of appraisal (in language teaching)

answer

appraisal by a supervisor, by a colleague, by students, or self-appraisal

question

in NEUROLINGUISTICS, a brain system that evaluates stimuli (such as a target language) in terms of such criteria as novelty, relevance, coping ability, and self- and social- image

answer

appraisal system

question

appraisal system (in Neurolinguistics)

answer

a brain system that evaluates stimuli

question

5 examples of the criteria that the brain system evaluates in the appraisal system

answer

coping ability, novelty, relevance, self-image, social-image

question

a developing area within discourse analysis and conversational analysis and associated with Halliday's Systematic Functional Linguistics. ____________ is concerned with the way speakers convey attitudinal meaning during conversation. It deals with the way speakers communicate such attitudes as certainty, emotional response, social evaluation, and intensity. _________ is mainly realize lexically, although it can also be realised by whole clauses.

answer

appraisal theory

question

appraisal theory

answer

a theory concerned with the way speakers convey attitudinal meaning during conversation

question

Appraisal theory deals with the way speakers communicate such attitudes as: (4 examples)

answer

certainty, emotional response, intensity, social evaluation

question

is mainly realized lexically, although it can be also realised by whole clauses

answer

appraisal

question

appraisal is mainly realized ___________, although it can be also realised by _________________

answer

lexically, whole clauses

question

in language teaching, the theory, philosophy and principles underlying a particular set of teaching practices.

answer

approach

question

approach

answer

the theory, philosophy and principles underlying a particular set of teaching practices

question

language teaching is sometimes discussed in terms of three related aspects:

answer

approach, method, technique

question

different theories about the nature of language and how languages are learned

answer

approach

question

different ways of language teaching

answer

method

question

method

answer

different ways of language teaching

question

different kinds of classroom activities

answer

technique

question

technique

answer

different kinds of classroom activities

question

different theories about the nature of language and how languages are learned (_______) imply different ways of language teaching (_______) and different ________ make use of different kinds of classroom activities (____________)

answer

the approach, the method, methods, the technique

question

Examples are: aural-oral approach, the cognitive code approach, the communicative approach

answer

approach

question

Examples of approach (3)

answer

aural-oral approach, the cognitive code approach, the communicative approach

question

Examples are: audiolingual method, the direct method

answer

method

question

examples of method (2)

answer

audiolingual method, the direct method

question

examples are: dialogues, drills, role-plays, sentence completion

answer

technique

question

examples of technique (4)

answer

dialogues, drills, role-plays, sentence completion

question

see CLOZE TEST

answer

appropriate word method

question

noun form of "appropriate"

answer

appropriateness

question

the extent to which a use of language matches the linguistic and sociolinguistic expectations and practices of native speakers of the language. When producing an utterance, a speaker needs to know that it is grammatical, and also that it is suitable (_____________) for the particular situation. For example "Give me a glass of water!" is grammatical, but it would not be ___________ if the speaker wanted to be polite. A request such as "May I have a glass of water, please?" would be more _____________

answer

appropriate

question

appropriate

answer

the extent to which a use of language matches the linguistic and sociolinguistic expectations and practices of native speakers of the language

question

"Give me a glass of water!" is an example of a sentence which is grammatically correct, but would not be ___________ if the speaker wanted to be polite

answer

appropriate

question

An example of a sentence which is grammatically correct but would not be appropriate if the speaker wanted to be polite

answer

Give me a glass of water!

question

in second language learning, the process by which language learners make the characteristics of one language and culture their own by adapting it to their own needs and interests. For example the ways in which speakers of Singapore and Malaysian English have made this variety of English distinctive and unique through incorporating features from Chinese, as with the use of the final particle "lah" in formal speech, such as "My turn to pay for lunch today lah!"

answer

appropriation

question

appropriation

answer

in second language learning, the process by which language learners make the characteristics of one language and culture their own by adapting it to their own needs and interests

question

For example the ways in which speakers of Singapore and Malaysian English have made this variety of English distinctive and unique through incorporating features from Chinese, as with the use of the final particle "lah" in formal speech, such as "My turn to pay for lunch today lah!"

answer

appropriation

question

An example of appropriation by Singapore and Malaysian speakers of English

answer

"lah" in "My turn to pay for lunch today lah!"

question

a sound produced by the approach of one articulator towards another but without the vocal tract being narrowed so much that a turbulent airstream is produced. English /r,l,y,w/ are __________ and can be further subdivided into SEMIVOWELS or GLIDES (/y/ and /w/) and LIQUIDS (/l/ and /r/)

answer

approximant

question

_____________ =a sound produced by the approach of one ____________ towards another but without the vocal ___________ being narrowed so much that a turbulent _____________ is produced.

answer

approximant, articulator, tract, airstream

question

approximant

answer

a sound produced by the approach of one articulator towards another but without the vocal tract being narrowed so much that a turbulent airstream is produced

question

English /r,l,y,w/ and can be further subdivided into SEMIVOWELS or GLIDES (/y/ and /w/) and LIQUIDS (/l/ and /r/)

answer

approximant

question

_______________ =English /r,l,y,w/ and can be further subdivided into _______________ or _______________ (/y/ and /w/) and _______________(/l/ and /r/)

answer

approximant, glides, semivowels, liquids

question

English approximants (4)

answer

/l,r,w,y/

question

semivowels or glides

answer

/w,y/

question

/w,y/

answer

glides or semivowels

question

liquids

answer

/l,r/

question

/r,l/

answer

liquids

question

English /r,l,y,w/ are approximants and can be further subdivided into:

answer

glides or semivowels /w,y/ and liquids (/l,r/)

question

English approximants and their subdivisions:

answer

/l,r,w,y/ and can be further subdivided into glides or semivowels /w,y/ and liquids (/l,r/)

question

see INTERLANGUAGE

answer

approximative system

question

a Latin phrase: "from the earlier"

answer

a priori

question

a priori

answer

from the earlier

question

a Latin phrase: "from the latter"

answer

a posteriori

question

a posteriori

answer

from the latter

question

two types of syllabuses in language teaching

answer

a priori syllabus, a posteriori syllabus

question

a syllabus prepared in advance of the course and used as a basis for developing classroom activities

answer

a priori syllabus

question

______________________= a syllabus ____________in advance of the course and used as a ___________for developing classroom ______________

answer

a priori syllabus, prepared, basis, activities

question

a priori syllabus

answer

a syllabus prepared in advance of the course and used as a basis for developing classroom activities

question

a syllabus which is not developed in advance but which is prepared after a course is taught, as a record of the language and activities used in the course (1 term)

answer

a posteriori syllabus

question

a syllabus which is not developed in advance but which is prepared after a course is taught, as a record of the language and activities used in the course (2 terms)

answer

a posteriori syllabus, retrospective syllabus

question

another name for "a posteriori syllabus"

answer

retrospective syllabus

question

another name for "retrospective syllabus"

answer

a posteriori syllabus

question

_____________ =a syllabus which is not ___________in advance but which is prepared ________ a course is taught, as a ____________ of the language and activities used in the course

answer

a posteriori syllabus, developed, after, record

question

a posteriori syllabus or retrospective syllabus

answer

a syllabus which is not developed in advance but which is prepared after a course is taught as a record of the language and activities used in the course

question

see LANGUAGE APTITUDE

answer

aptitude

question

see LANGUAGE APTITUDE TEST

answer

aptitude test

question

the relationship between a learner's personal strengths and weaknesses in learning and the learning situation, including the type of programme one is enrolled on. The study of such interactions is motivated by the idea that learners will learn best in a situation in which the demands of the classroom or other learning context match their areas of aptitude. For example, a learner with a high ORAL MIMICRY ABILITY may learn better in one type of language programme, while one high in GRAMMATICAL SENSITIVITY may learn better in another

answer

aptitude-treatment interaction

question

______________________= the _____________ between a learner's personal strengths and weaknesses in learning and the learning ______________, including the type of programme one is ______________ on.

answer

aptitude-treatment interaction, relationship, situation, enrolled

question

aptitude-treatment interaction

answer

the relationship between a learner's personal strengths and weaknesses in learning and the learning situation including the type of program one is enrolled on

question

The study of such interactions is motivated by the idea that learners will learn best in a situation in which the demands of the classroom or other learning context match their areas of aptitude.

answer

aptitude-treatment interaction

question

____________________= The study of such interactions is ________________ by the idea that learners will learn best in a situation in which the _____________ of the classroom or other learning context match their areas of _____________.

answer

aptitude-treatment interaction, motivated, demands, aptitude

question

For example, a learner with a high ORAL MIMICRY ABILITY may learn better in one type of language programme, while one high in GRAMMATICAL SENSITIVITY may learn better in another

answer

aptitude-treatment interaction

question

_________________=For example, a learner with a high _________________ may learn better in one _________________of language programme, while one high in _________________ may learn better in another

answer

aptitude-treatment interaction, oral mimicry ability, type, grammatical sensitivity

question

an example of aptitude-treatment interaction

answer

a learner with a high oral mimicry ability may learn better in one type of language program while one high in grammatical sensitivity may learn better in another

question

the study of languages or dialects which are spoken in a particular area. An example is a study of two neighboring languages to see how they influence each other in terms of grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc. see also DIALECTOLOGY

answer

areal linguistics

question

____________________ =the study of languages or _________ which are __________ in a particular _____________.

answer

areal linguistics, dialects, spoken, area

question

areal linguistics

answer

the study of languages or dialects which are spoken in a particular area

question

an example is the study of two neighboring languages to see how they influence each other in terms of grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary etc.

answer

areal linguistics

question

_________________ = an example is the study of two neighboring languages to see how they influence each other in terms of _________, __________, ___________, etc.

answer

areal linguistics, grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary

question

_________________ = an example is the study of two ____________ languages to see how they ___________each other in _________ of grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary etc.

answer

areal linguistics, neighboring, influence, terms

question

an example of areal linguistics

answer

the study of two neighboring languages to see how they influence each other in terms of grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary etc.

question

in LOGIC, the thing talked about (see PROPOSITION)

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argument

question

___________=________ LOGIC, ________ thing __________ about (_____ PROPOSITION)

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argument, in, the, talked, see

question

argument = in LOGIC _________ ________ _________ about (see PROPOSITION)

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the thing talked

question

argument = in LOGIC _________ ________ _________ _________(see PROPOSITION)

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the thing talked about

question

in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR the thematic role of a noun in relation to a verb (see CASE THEORY, THETA THEORY)

answer

argument

question

______________ =in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR the __________role of a _________in relation to a _________ (see CASE THEORY, THETA THEORY)

answer

argument, thematic, noun, verb

question

argument= in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR ______ ______ ______ of a noun in relation to a verb (see CASE THEORY, THETA THEORY)

answer

the thematic role

question

argument= in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ in relation to a verb (see CASE THEORY, THETA THEORY)

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the thematic role of a noun

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argument= in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ a verb (see CASE THEORY, THETA THEORY)

answer

the thematic role of a noun in relation to

question

argument= in GENERATIVE GRAMMAR ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______ ______(see CASE THEORY, THETA THEORY)

answer

the thematic role of a noun in relation to a verb

question

see ESSAY

answer

argumentation

question

see MODES OF WRITING

answer

argumentative writing

question

a word which is used with a noun, and which shows whether the noun refers to something definite or indefinite

answer

article

question

_____________=a word which is used with a _________, and which shows whether the noun _________to something definite or ___________.

answer

article, noun,refers, indefinite

question

article=_____________ _____________ _____________ is used with a noun, and which shows whether the noun refers to something definite or indefinite

answer

a word which

question

article=_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ a noun, and which shows whether the noun refers to something definite or indefinite

answer

a word which is used with

question

article=_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ , _____________ which shows whether the noun refers to something definite or indefinite

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a word which is used with a noun and

question

article=_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ , _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ the noun refers to something definite or indefinite

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a word which is used with a noun and which shows whether

question

article=_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ , _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ to something definite or indefinite

answer

a word which is used with a noun and which shows whether the noun refers

question

article=_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ , _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ or indefinite

answer

a word which is used with a noun and which shows whether the noun refers to something definite

question

article=_____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ , _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________

answer

a word which is used with a noun and which shows whether the noun refers to something definite or indefinite

question

English has _____ types of articles.

answer

two

question

Two types of articles in English:

answer

definite article, indefinite article

question

all the articles in English

answer

a, an, the

question

a, an, the are the __________s in English

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article

question

example of definite article

answer

the

question

example: the

answer

definite article

question

examples of indefinite articles

answer

a, an

question

examples: a, an

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indefinite article

question

used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something

answer

definite article

question

________________= used to show that the ___________ refers to a ______________ example of _______________

answer

definite article, noun, particular, something

question

definite article= _______________ _______________ _______________that the noun refers to a particular example of something

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used to show

question

definite article= _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ refers to a particular example of something

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used to show that the noun

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definite article= _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ particular example of something

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used to show that the noun refers to a

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definite article= _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ something

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used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of

question

definite article= _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________

answer

used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something

question

the production of speech sounds in the mouth and throat (see VOCAL TRACT). In describing and analyzing speech sounds a distinction is made between the MANNER OF ________________ and the PLACE OF ___________

answer

articulation

question

a part of the mouth, nose, or throat which is used in producing speech, e.g. the tongue, lips, alveolar ridge, etc. see also PLACE OF ARTICULATION

answer

articulator

question

see WORKING MEMORY

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articulatory loop

question

the overall posture, position, or characteristic movements of the organs of speech typical of a particular language or dialect. For example, speakers of English make much more active use of both lip and tongue movements than speakers of some languages (Japanese for example), while Arabic has many consonants formed towards the back of the oral cavity, producing an overall "heaviers" velarized or pharyngealized sound (see VELARIZATION, PHARYNGEALIZATION)

answer

articulatory setting

question

see PHONETICS

answer

articulatory phonetics

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(opposite of concrete noun) the name of something which we experience as an idea, not by seeing, touching, etc. Examples: doubt, height, geography

answer

abstract noun

question

an ___________ verb is one like breaks, told, will help (not like is broke, was told, will be helped, which are passive verb forms). the subject of an _______ verb is usually the person or thing that does the action, or that is responsible for what happens

answer

active

question

a word like green, hungry, impossible which is used when we describe people, things, events etc. __________ are used in connection with nouns and pronouns. Examples: a green apple, she's hungry

answer

adjective

question

a word like tomorrow, once, badly, there, also which is used to say, for example, when, where or how something happens. There are many kinds of _________s with different functions

answer

adverb

question

a short adverb like up, out, off often used as part of a phrasal verb.

answer

adverb particle

question

by referring to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer

answer

definite article

question

_________________ =by _________ to something which is _________________ to both the speaker and the _________________

answer

definite article, referring, known, hearer

question

definite article=used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something, e.g. a). _________________ _________________ _________________ something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer She is in the garden. He is at the post office. b). by referring backwards to something already mentioned. There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat? c). By referring forward to something The chair in the living room is broken d). by referring to something as a group or class: The lion is a dangerous animal.

answer

by referring to

question

definite article=used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something, e.g. a). _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ known to both the speaker and the hearer She is in the garden. He is at the post office. b). by referring backwards to something already mentioned. There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat? c). By referring forward to something The chair in the living room is broken d). by referring to something as a group or class: The lion is a dangerous animal.

answer

by referring to something which is

question

definite article=used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something, e.g. a). _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ the speaker and the hearer She is in the garden. He is at the post office. b). by referring backwards to something already mentioned. There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat? c). By referring forward to something The chair in the living room is broken d). by referring to something as a group or class: The lion is a dangerous animal.

answer

by referring to something which is known to both

question

an ____________ sentence is one that makes a positive statement--not a negative sentence or a question. Compare "I agree" (_________); "I don't agree" (negative)

answer

affirmative

question

in a passive sentence, the ________ is the expression that says who or what an action is done by. Example:"a child" in "This picture was probably painted by a child"

answer

agent

question

a, an and the are called _________s. a/a is called the "indefinite __________"; the is called the "definite___________"

answer

article

question

Grammarians prefer to talk about progressive and perfective ________ rather than progressive and perfect tense, since these forms express other ideas besides time (e.g. continuity, completion). However, in this book (Swan's book) the term tense is often used to include __________ for the sake of simplicity

answer

aspect

question

Adjectives placed before nouns are in "__________ position". Examples: a green shirt, my noisy son. See also predicative

answer

attributive

question

the ability of machines to carry out functions that are normally associated with human intelligence, such as reasoning, correcting, making self-improvements, and learning through experience. Computer programmers try to create programs which have this capacity.

answer

artificial intelligence

question

a language which has been invented for a particular purpose and which has no native speakers. For example, Esperanto was invented by L.L. Zamenhof and was intended to be learned as a second language and used for international communication. ________________ are also invented for experiments on aspects of natural language use.

answer

artificial language

question

in computer programming, a code system made up of symbols , numbers or signs, such as the programming language COBOL

answer

artificial language

question

a term used to denote the activity, event, or state described by a verb, for example whether the activity is ongoing or completed. Two types of _________ are common recognized: lexical _________ (or inherent lexical ________) refers to the internal semantics of verbs, which can be grouped into a number of categories: 1. states, verbs that refer to unchanging conditions (see STATIVE VERBS) for example; be, have, want 2. activities, verbs referring to processes with no inherent beginning or end point, for example: play, walk, breathe 3. accomplishments, which are durative (last of a period of time) but have an inherent end point for example: read a book, write a novel 4. achievements, which are nondurative and have an inherent end point, for example: finish, realize, arrive grammatical _____________, on the other hand, refers to the resources provided by a language (such as verbal auxiliaries, prefixes, and suffixes) to encode different perspectives taken by a speaker towards activities, events, and states. Languages make available different options for realizing _____________ grammatically. English has two grammatical _____________s: progressive and perfect

answer

aspect

question

see LEXICAL ASPECT HYPOTHESIS

answer

aspect hypothesis

question

a verb like be, have, do which is used with another verb to make tenses, passive forms etc. Examples: She was writing; Where have you put it?

answer

auxiliary verb

question

a part of a sentence which contains a subject and a verb, usually joined to the rest of the sentence by a conjunction. Example: Mary said that she was tired. (The word clause is also sometimes used used for structures containing participles or infinitives with no subject or conjunction. Example: Not knowing what to do, I telephoned Robin.)

answer

clause

question

a sentence in which special emphasis is given to one part (e.g. the subject or the object) by using a structure with it or what. Examples: It was you that cause the accident; What I need is a drink.

answer

cleft sentence

question

a singular word for a group. Examples: Family, team.

answer

collective noun

question

the form of an adjective or adverb made with -er (e.g. older, faster); also the structure more + adjective/adverb, used in the same way (e.g. more useful, more politely)

answer

comparative

question

definite article=used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something, e.g. a). _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ the hearer She is in the garden. He is at the post office. b). by referring backwards to something already mentioned. There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat? c). By referring forward to something The chair in the living room is broken d). by referring to something as a group or class: The lion is a dangerous animal.

answer

by referring to something which is known to both the speaker and

question

definite article=used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something, e.g. a). _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ _________________ She is in the garden. He is at the post office. b). by referring backwards to something already mentioned. There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat? c). By referring forward to something The chair in the living room is broken d). by referring to something as a group or class: The lion is a dangerous animal.

answer

by referring to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer

question

_________________________________________________ "the" in: ________ is _________ the ___________

answer

by referring to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer, She, in, garden

question

an example of the definite article used to refer to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer: "________ " ________ : ________ is in the garden.

answer

"the" in: She

question

an example of the definite article used to refer to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer: "________ " ________ : ________ ________ ________ ________ garden.

answer

"the" in: She is in the

question

a part of a sentence that gives more information about the subject (after be, seem and other verbs), or, in some structures, about the object. Examples: You're the right person to help; she looks very kind; They elected him president

answer

complement

question

a structure or words needed after a noun, adjective, verb or preposition to complete its meaning. Examples: the intention to travel; full of water; try phoning, down the street

answer

complement

question

a _____________ noun, verb, adjective, preposition etc is one that is made of two or more parts. Examples: bus driver, get on with, one-eyed

answer

compound

question

(opposite of abstract noun) the name of something which we can experience by seeing, touching etc. Examples: cloud; petrol; raspberry

answer

concrete noun

question

a verb form made by using the auxiliary would (also should after I and we). Examples: I would run; she would sing; we should think

answer

conditional

question

see GENERATIVE THEORY

answer

Aspects Model

question

see ASPIRATION

answer

aspirated

question

a puff of air (acoustically, a period of voicelessness) after the release of an articulation. For example, in English the stop consonants /p,t,k/ are aspirated when they are syllable initial, as in initial sounds of pie, tie, kite. When these phonemes are preceded by /s/, e.g. in span, stairs, and skate, there is no puff of air and these sounds are unaspirated. _______________ increases when a word or syllable is stressed. For example, in the phrase a piece of pie, _______________ is more noticeable in the word pie than in the word piece.

answer

aspiration

question

the very small puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound. For example, in English the /p/ is __________d at the beginning of the word pan, but when it is preceded by an /s/, e.g. in span there is no puff of air. the /p/ in span is unaspirated. In phonetic notation, aspiration is shown by the symbol [h] or ['], e.g. [phin] or [p'in] in pin. Aspiration increases when a word or syllable is stressed, e.g.: Ouch! I stepped on a PIN.

answer

aspirate

question

a systematic approach to collecting information and making inferences about the ability of a student or the quality or success of a teaching course on the basis of various sources of evidence. __________ may be done by test, interview, questionnaire, observation, etc. For example, assessment of the comprehension ability of an immigrant student may be necessary to discover if the student is able to follow a course of study in a school, or whether extra language teaching is needed. Students may be tested at the beginning and again at the end of a course to assess the quality of the teaching on the course. The term "testing" is often associated with large-scale standardized tests, whereas the term "_____________" is used in a much wider sense to mean a variety of approaches in testing and _____________.

answer

assessment

question

a clause or sentence containing "if" (or a word with a similar meaning) and perhaps containing a __________ verb form. Examples: If you try you'll understand; I should be surprised if she knew; What would you have done if the train had been late?

answer

conditional

question

a word like: and, but, although, because, when, if which can be used to join clauses together. Example: I rang because I was worried.

answer

conjunction

question

for example the letters b, c, d, f, g and their usual sounds

answer

consonant

question

the same as progressive

answer

continuous

question

a short form in which a subject and an auxiliary verb, or and auxiliary verb and the word "not", are joined together into one word. _______________ are also made with non-auxiliary "be" and "have". Examples: I'm, who've, John'll, can't

answer

contraction

question

an example of the definite article used to refer to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer: "________ " ________ : ________ ________ ________ ________ ________ .

answer

"the" in: She is in the garden

question

"the" in: She is in the garden is an example of:

answer

by referring to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer

question

by referring backwards to something already mentioned

answer

definite article

question

_____________: by _____________ backwards to _____________ already _____________

answer

definite article, referring, something. mentioned

question

definite article=used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something, e.g. a). by referring to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer She is in the garden. He is at the post office. b). _____________ _____________ _____________ to something already mentioned. There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat? c). By referring forward to something The chair in the living room is broken d). by referring to something as a group or class: The lion is a dangerous animal.

answer

by referring backwards

question

one of two or more main or subordinate clauses of equal value that are connected. Examples: Shall I come to your place or would you like to come to mine? It's cooler today and there's a bit of wind; she said that it was late and that she was tired

answer

co-ordinate clause

question

the same as link verb

answer

copular verb

question

a noun like car, dog, idea, which can have a plural form and can be used with the indefinite article a/an.

answer

countable noun

question

a question which has the same grammatical form as a statement. Example: That's your girlfriend?

answer

declarative question

question

see IDENTIFYING RELATIVE

answer

defining relative

question

a phonological process in which a speech sound changes and becomes more like or identical to another sound that precedes or follows it. For example, in English the negative prefix appears as im- before words beginning with a bilabial stop (e.g. possible: impossible) but as in- before words beginning with an alveolar stop (e.g. tolerant; intolerant). ____________ in which a following sound brings about a change in a preceding one is called regressive ____________ or anticipatory coarticulation. For example, the rounding of the lips during /s/ in swim is due to the anticipation of the lip action required for /w/ ____________ in which a preceding sound brings about a change in a following one is called progressive or perseverative ____________ . For example the difference between the /s/ in words like cats and the /z/ in words like dogs and the difference between the final /t/ in dropped and the final /d/ in praised are examples of progressive assimilation because the final sound (/s/ or /z/, /t/ or /d/) depends on whether the preceding consonant is voiced or not. A third type of ____________ , coalescent ____________ takes place when two sounds in a sequence come together to produce a sound with features from both original sounds. For example, the final alveolar stop /d/ of could and the initial palatal /y/ of you may coalesce to become a palatal affricate /dz/ in a phrase like "could you? " This process is commonly referred to as palatalization

answer

assimilation

question

a process in which a group gradually gives up its own language, culture, and system of values and takes on those of another group with a different language, culture, and system of values through a period of interaction. see also ACCULTURATION, SOCIAL DISTANCE

answer

assimilation

question

learning which happens when a connection or association is made, usually between two things. For example: a) when someone hears the word table, they may think of the word food, because this word is often used with or near table. This is called association by contiguity b) When someone hears the word delicate, they may think of the word fragile, because it has a similar meaning. This is called association by similarity c) When someone hears the word happy, they may think of the word sad, because it has the opposite meaning. This is called association by contrast. ____________ theory has been used in studies of memory, learning and verbal learning. see also VERBAL LEARNING, WORD ASSOCIATION, PAIRED-ASSOCIATE LEARNING

answer

associative learning

question

the meaning of a word is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the word. For example, in a word association test a person might be given a word (a stimulus) and then asked to list all the things they think of (the response). For example. Stimulus: puppy response: warm, young, furry, lively, kitten. warm, young, furry, lively, kitten make up the ____________ of puppy for that person. ____________ has been used in studies of memory and thought. see also WORD ASSOCIATION, STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORY

answer

associative meaning

question

a memory system that stores mappings of specific, representations to inputs, outputs, and other representations. In connectionism, a memory system that learns to produce input patterns as output patterns is called autoassociative

answer

associative memory

question

this, these, that, those

answer

demonstrative

question

one of a group of words that begin noun phrases. __________ include a/an, the, my, this, each, either, several, more, both, all

answer

determiner

question

see object

answer

direct object

question

speech reported "directly" in the words used by the original speaker (more or less) without any changes of tenses, pronouns, etc. Examples: She looked at me and said, "This is my money." See also indirect speech

answer

direct speech

question

a word or expression which shows the connection between what is being said and the wider context. A ______________ may, for example, connect a sentence with what comes before or after, or it may how the speaker's attitude to what he/she is saying. Examples: on the other hand; frankly; as a matter of fact

answer

discourse marker

question

definite article=used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something, e.g. a). by referring to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer She is in the garden. He is at the post office. b). _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ mentioned. There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat? c). By referring forward to something The chair in the living room is broken d). by referring to something as a group or class: The lion is a dangerous animal.

answer

by referring backwards to something already

question

definite article=used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something, e.g. a). by referring to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer She is in the garden. He is at the post office. b). _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ _____________ . There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat? c). By referring forward to something The chair in the living room is broken d). by referring to something as a group or class: The lion is a dangerous animal.

answer

by referring backwards to something already mentioned

question

______________________________ Example: There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat?

answer

by referring backwards to something already mentioned

question

______________________________= There is a _________waiting outside. Who, the _________in the brown ___________?

answer

by referring backwards to something already mentioned, man, man, coat

question

example of referring backwards to something already mentioned: ___________ ___________ ___________ man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat?

answer

There is a

question

how long something lasts. The preposition for can be used with an expression of time to indicate __________.

answer

duration

question

leaving out words when their meaning can be understood from the context. Examples: (It's a) nice day, isn't it? It was better than I expected (it would be)

answer

ellipsis

question

giving special importance to one part of a word or sentence (for example by pronouncing it more loudly, by writing it in capital letters; by using do in an affirmative clause; by using special word order).

answer

emphasis

question

reflexive pronoun (myself, yourself, etc). used to emphasis a noun or pronoun. Examples: I'll tell him myself. I wouldn't sell this to the king himself. See also reflexive pronoun

answer

emphatic pronoun

question

something added to the end of a word, e.g. -er, -ing, -ed.

answer

ending

question

see SYLLABLE

answer

asyllabic

question

in COMPUTER ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING, communication that is not instantaneous and can be accessed and read by the recipient at a later time. Language classes often use this type of communication in the form of bulletin boards or discussion lists. see also SYNCHRONOUS COMMUNICATION

answer

asynchronous communication

question

the ability a person has to concentrate on some things while ignoring others. Subsystems of ____________-that have been identified include alertness (an overall readiness to deal with incoming stimuli), orientation (the direction of attentional resources to certain types of stimuli) detection (cognitive registration of a particular stimulus) and inhibition (deliberately ignoring some stimuli). In SLA theory, it has been proposed that nothing can be learned from input without it being the object of some level of ___________ and detected; whether such detection must be conscious is controversial. Sustained________, the ability to direct and focus cognitive activity on specific stimuli for a period of time, is necessary for such language tasks as reading a newspaper article or any complex sequenced action.

answer

attention

question

see LANGUAGE ATTITUDES

answer

attitude

question

a technique for measuring a person's reaction to something. A common scale is the Likert scale. With this a statement of belief or attitude is shown to someone, and he or she is asked to show how strongly he or she agrees or disagrees with the statement by marking a scale like the one shown below: Foreign languages are important for all educated adults. __________________________________________________ 1 2 3 4 5 7 strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree

answer

attitude scale

question

see person

answer

first person

question

the style used when talking politely to strangers, on special occasions, in some literary writing, in business letters, etc. For example, commence is a more _________ word than start

answer

formal

question

adverbs of ____________ say how often something happens. Examples: often, never, daily, occasionally

answer

frequency

question

moving a part of a clause to the beginning in order to give it special emphasis. Example: Jack I like, but his wife I can't stand

answer

fronting

question

see main verb

answer

full verb

question

example of referring backwards to something already mentioned: ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ . Who, the man in the brown coat?

answer

There is a man waiting outside.

question

example of referring backwards to something already mentioned: ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ . ___________ , ___________ ___________ in the brown coat?

answer

There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man

question

example of referring backwards to something already mentioned: ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ . ___________ , ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ coat?

answer

There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown

question

example of referring backwards to something already mentioned: ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ . ___________ , ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ?

answer

There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat?

question

by referring forward to something

answer

definite article

question

a verb form made with the auxiliary shall/will + infinitive without to. Examples: I shall arrive, will it matter?

answer

future

question

a verb form made with shall/will + have + past participle. Example: I will have finished by lunchtime

answer

future perfect

question

(or future continuous) a verb form made with shall/will + be+...ing. Example: I will be needing the car this evening

answer

future progressive

question

the use of different grammatical forms to show the difference between masculine, feminine and neuter or between human and non-human. Examples: he, she, it, who, which

answer

gender

question

the form of a verb ending in -ing, used like a noun (for example, as the subject or object or a sentence). Examples: Smoking is bad for you; I hate getting up early. See also present participle

answer

gerund

question

the theory that the causes people attribute to perceived successes and failures in their lives play a significant role in their subsequent level of motivation and behavior. For example, learners may attribute their relative success or failure in language learner to such factors as ability, the classroom environment, good or poor teaching, interest, strategy use, support from others, etc. Attributions can be classified on the basis of locus of control (internal factors such as effort v. external factors such as the textbook or teaching method), stability (stable factors such as personality vs. unstable factors such as mood), and controllability (controllable factors such as effort vs. uncontrollable factors such as language aptitude). Although there may be a self-serving bias that leads to ascribing success to internal factors and failures to external ones, it is generally believed that learners who attribute both success and failure to internal factors such as effort are more likely to maintain their motivation at a high level

answer

attribution theory

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an adjective which is used before a noun. For example, good in a good book is an attributive adjective.An adjective which is used after a verb, especially after the verbs be, become, seem, etc. is called a predicative adjective. For example, good, in The book was very good. Many adjectives in English are like good and can be used both attriubtively and predicatively, but some, like main and utter, can only be used attributively, e.g. a busy main road, an utter foold, and some, like afraid and asleep, can only be used predicatively e.g. The boy was asleep, the dog seems afraid. Many nouns in English can also be used attributively, e.g. paper in a paper cup. Languages differ in the extent to which they use adjectives attributively, predicatively, or in both positions. see also ADJECTIVE

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attributive adjective

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see LANGUAGE ATTRITION (3)

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attriters, attriting language, attrition

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when writing any type of text, the writer's understanding of the readers for whom the text is intended. The writer's understanding of the readers' beliefs, values and understandings can have an influence on how the writer structures the text and the features the writer includes in it. Good writing is said to reflect the writer's consideration of the _________

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audience

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a technique for giving feedback on a student's spoken language in which the student receives personalized feedback on his or her performance based on short audio recordings, done individually at home or out of class. ______________ may be regarded as the spoken equivalent of a writing journal

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audio journal

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pretty, hard or cold are __________ adjectives: things can be more or less pretty hard or cold. Adverbs of degree (like rather, very) can be used with ____________ words. Perfect or dead are not ___________ words: we do not normally say that something is more or less perfect or very dead

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gradable

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the rules that show how words are combined, arranged or changed to show certain kinds of meaning

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grammar

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some words and structures (e.g. modal verbs, if-clauses) are used for _____________ situations-- that is to say, situations which may not happen or are imaginary. Example What would you do if you had six months free?

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hypothetical

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a relative clause which identifies a noun--which tells us which person or thing is being talked about. Example: There's the woman who tried to steal your cat. (The relative clause who tried to steal your cat identifies the woman--it tells us which woman is meant.) see also non-identifying relative clause

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identifying relative clause

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the form of a verb used to give orders, make suggestions, et.c Examples: Bring me a pen; Have a good holiday

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imperative

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__________ = __________ referring __________ to __________

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definite article, by, forward, something

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definite article=used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something, e.g. a). by referring to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer She is in the garden. He is at the post office. b). by referring backwards to something already mentioned. There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat? c). __________ __________ __________ to something The chair in the living room is broken d). by referring to something as a group or class: The lion is a dangerous animal.

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by referring forward

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definite article=used to show that the noun refers to a particular example of something, e.g. a). by referring to something which is known to both the speaker and the hearer She is in the garden. He is at the post office. b). by referring backwards to something already mentioned. There is a man waiting outside. Who, the man in the brown coat? c). __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ The chair in the living room is broken d). by referring to something as a group or class: The lion is a dangerous animal.

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by referring forward to something

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example of definite article: The chair in the living room is broken

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by referring forward to something

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_______________________________, The ________ in the ________ room is ________

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by referring forward to something, chair, living, broken

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a structure in which we report what somebody said by making it part of our own sentence (so that tenses, word order, and pronouns and other words may be different from those used by the original speaker). Compare: He said, "I'm tired." (the original speaker's words are reported in direct speech) and He said that we was tired (the original speaker's words are reported in indirect speech)

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indirect speech

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the "base" form of a word (usually with "to") used after another verb, after an adjective or noun, or as the subject or complement of a sentence: Examples: I want to go home; It's easy to sing, I've got a plan to start a business, to err is human, to forgive divine

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infinitive

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the style used in ordinary conversation, personal letters etc, when there is no reason to speak politely or carefully. I'll is more _________ than I will, get is used mostly in an ________ style; start is more ________ word than commence

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informal

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the form of a verb ending in -ing. Examples: finding, keeping, running. See also gerund, present participle.

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-ing form

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at the beginning. Sometimes is an adverb that can go in ________ position in a sentence. Example: Sometimes I wish I had a different job.

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initial

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also aural-oral method, mim-mem method a method of foreign or second language teaching which (a) emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing (b) uses dialogues and drills (c) discourages use of the mother tongue in the classroom (d) often makes use of contrastive analysis. The _____________ was prominent in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in the United States, and has been widely used in many other parts of the world. The theory behind the _________ is the aural-oral approach to language teaching, which contains the following beliefs about language and language learning: (a) speaking and listening are the most basic language skills (b) each language has its own unique structure and rule system (c) a language is learned through forming habits. These ideas were based partly on the theory of structural linguistics and partly on behaviorism. Criticism of the audiolingual method is based on criticism of its theory and its techniques. (see cognitive code approach, communicative approach, see also approach, mim-mem method)

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audiolingual method

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the study of hearing and hearing disorders, particularly the nature of hearing loss and the treatment of people suffering from hearing disorders

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audiology

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an audio or visual device used by a teacher to help learning. For example, pictures, charts, and flashcards are visual aids; radio, records, and tape-recorders are auditory aids. Film, television and video are _____________s.

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audio-visual aid

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also structural global method. a method of foreign language teaching which was developed in France in the 1950s and which, a) teaches speaking and listening before reading and writing b) does not use the mother tongue in the classroom c) uses recorded dialogues with film-strip picture sequences to present language d) uses drill to teach basic grammar and vocabulary The audio-visual method is based on the belief that a) language is learned through communication b) translation can be avoided if new language items are taught in situations c) choice of items for teaching should be based on a careful analysis of the language being taught see also audiolingual method

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audio-visual method

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see DEPENDABILITY

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auditing

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making stronger, more emphatic. Very and terrible are _______ adverbs

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intensifying

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__________ structures and words are used for asking questions. In an __________ sentence, there is an auxiliary verb (or non-auxiliary be) before the subject (e.g. can you swim, are you ready?) What, who, and where are __________ words

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interrogative

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the melody of spoken language: the way the musical pitch of the voice rises and falls to show meaning, sentence structure, or mood

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intonation

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an __________ verb is one that cannot have an object or be used in the passive. Examples: smile, fall, come, go

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intransitive

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a structure in which an auxiliary or other verb comes before its subject. Examples: Never had she seen such a mess; Here comes John.

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inversion

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an example of definite article by referring forward to something: __________ __________ __________ the living room is broken.

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The chair in

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an example of definite article by referring forward to something: __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ is broken.

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The chair in the living room

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Example of definite article: by referring forward to something _________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________

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The chair in the living room is broken

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by referring to something as a group or class

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definite article

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_____________= by referring to __________ as a __________ or __________

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definite article, something, group, class

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not following the normal rules or having the usual form. An ________ verb has a past tense and/or past participle that does not end in -ed (e.g. swam, taken). Children is an ________ plural

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irregular

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(or copular verb) be, seem, feel and other verbs which link a subject to a complement that describes it. Examples: My mother is in Jersey; he seems unhappy; This feels soft

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link verb

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Some sentences consist of a ______________ and one or more ___________ clauses.

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main clause, subordinate

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acts like a part of the main clause (e.g. like a subject, or an object, or an adverbial). Examples: Where she is doesn't mattter (The _______________ Where she is is the subject of the main clause); I told you that I didn't are (the ______________ that I didn't care is the direct object of the main clause; You'll find friends wherever you go (the ____________ "wherever you go") acts like an adverb in the main clause: compare: You'll find friends anywhere.)

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subordinate clause

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(or full verb) A verb phrase often contains one or more auxiliary verbs together with a main verb. The main verb is the verb which expresses the central meaning; auxiliary verbs mostly add grammatical information (for instance they may show that a verb is progressive, future, perfect or passive). Examples: Is going, will explain, has arrived; would have been forgotten

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main verb

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