Assessment Center – Flashcards
Unlock all answers in this set
Unlock answersquestion
Plyler v. Doe (1982)
answer
A decision by the U.S. Supreme court ruled that: • Public schools may not discriminate on the basis of immigration status. It struck down as unconstitutional a Texas statute that had authorized school districts to exclude students who had no proof of legal residency. "These children can neither affect their parents' conduct nor their own undocumented status," the court ruled.
question
Lau v. Nichols (1974)
answer
A unanimous U.S. Supreme Court Ruling that: • There is no equality of treatment merely by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers, and curriculum; for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education
question
Castaneda v Pickard (1981)
answer
A Federal Appeals court established a "three pronged test": It remains the primary tool for enforcing Lau v. Nichols 1. Programs for ELLs must be based on a educational theory recognized as sound by experts 2. Resources, personnel, and practices must be reasonably calculated to implement the program effectively. 3. Programs must be evaluated and, if necessary, restructured to ensure that language barriers are being overcome.
question
zero conditional:
answer
This is an if/then statement where a general principle is described or something that is generally true is described. It is often used where you are describing scientific fact. If you drop ice in water, it floats. Note, both parts of the conditional use present tense: If + present tense sentence, then + present tense sentence. More examples: If you heat water to 100 degrees celsius, it boils. If you drop a piece of toast on the ground, it lands butter side down. For another explanation of zero conditional please refer to the University of Victoria web site. For more discussion of conditionals in this glossary see: first conditional second conditional third conditional
question
visual learners:
answer
Learners who benefit more from right-brained activities. Visual learners learn best when they see as opposed to aural learners. The implication for ESL teaching is that visual stimulation accompanying lessons may have some benefit for some students.
question
VESL:
answer
Vocational English as a Second Language; Learning English to perform a job. Some examples include tourism English and business English.
question
use and usage:
answer
Use is how the language is used in communication, or the function of language. This can be contrasted with usage, which is the grammatical explanation of some language. Have you ever . . . Have you ever eaten fried snake? Use: To inquire about past experiences. Usage: A present perfect question with ever placed in front of the past participle. Although usage does have some part to play in adult education, use is more important. In meaningful communication, students are more concerned with the function of language.
question
universal grammar:
answer
This is an innatist view that all people are born with some knowledge of language. Linguists use this hypothesis to explain how it is we can acquire a language with a 'poverty of stimulus' or not enough input to account for the complexity of output. Essentially, we are all born with the capacity for any kind of language. This is not to say we are born with knowledge of the particular rules of our own language, but rather general or universal principles of all languages. This innate knowledge allows us to select a particular language based on a few instances of input and produce very complex output that we he have never encountered as input. One example of a kind of principle proposed by universal grammar theorists is the innate parameter. Essentially, we are born with parameters of language and minimal instances of input will allow us to figure out how to set the parameters for our own language (keep in mind this is a subconscious process). Evidence for this is found in the head-first or head-last parameter of language, which has been uncovered: In English, phrases are head-first: that means that a noun is at the head of a noun phrase, a preposition is at the head of a prepositional phrase, and verb is at the head of a verb phrase. Our innate parameter is such that if one of these phrases is head-first, they all will be. And hence a few utterances whereby a child understands that a preposition heads a prepositional phrase will allow the child to correctly construct other phrases too. In Korean and Japanese, prepositional phrases are head-last and accordingly, so are the other phrases. This will resonate well with any English speaker who has studied Japanese or Korean and discovered that everything seems to be backwards. The Innatists claim that this is an example of the parameter having been set differently.
question
TPR, total physical response:
answer
A teaching technique whereby a learner (usually young learner) responds to language input with body motions. This could be, for example, the acting out a chant. This technique was devised by James Asher who noted that children listen and respond with guestures before they speak. One benefit is that TPR allows for low anxiety learning since students don't have the stress of producing language. 'Robot' is an example of a TPR activity, where the teacher commands her robots to do some task in the classroom. Acting out stories and giving imperative commands are common TPR activities. Great for early stages but difficult to teach complex language. Another benefit (and Asher's main justification for TPR as a technique) is that it stimulates right-brain motor skill activity. For more information see the TPR World homepage. For an example of a TPR lesson plan, read Judie Haynes article at everythingESL.net
question
top-down:
answer
Studying language as a whole. Trying to understand the meaning of a reading or listening selection without worrying about the individual components of language. Listening for the gist and reading for the gist are two types of top-down activities. The learner is trying to understand using cues such as intonation, tone of voice or body language without focusing on specific words and structures. Top-down learning is thought to be important for producing automatic processing. Top-down techniques can be contrasted with bottom-up techniques.
question
TOEFL:
answer
Test of English as a Foreign Language. TOEFL is supposed to test English proficiency for international students who want to study abroad. Many academic programs require a high TOEFL score to be admitted. For more information visit the TOEFL organization homepage. TOEFL has come under criticism as being an inaccurate test of English communicative ability.
question
TOEIC:
answer
Test of English for International Communication. A standardized test that is used to prove proficiency in English. The test is given several times a year on preannounced dates. This test has become a worldwide standard. However, in recent year, country specific organizations are gaining acceptance (TEPS in Korea for example).
question
third conditional:
answer
This an if/then statement used to talk about hypothetical or unreal situations in the past. In other words, it is used to examine what would have happened if the past had been different. If I had known you were coming, I would have cooked dinner. (In fact, I didn't know you were coming). I would have killed him, if he drank my beer. (He didn't drink my beer, lucky for him.) If he had studied harder, he might have passed. If + past perfect, then + would (could, might)+ present perfect However, in casual speach many speakers use a 'mixed-conditional' form, where the simple past is substituted for the past perfect. If I knew you were coming, I would have cooked dinner. If he drank my beer, I would have killed him. For more discussion of conditionals in this glossary see: zero conditional first conditional second conditional For more on the third conditional see the University of Victoria's website.
question
TESOL,TESL:
answer
Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages or Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
question
TESL:
answer
Teaching English as a Second Language.
question
teach what is teachable:
answer
In this view of teaching, some things can be taught, but only if the learner is ready for them. Proponents of this view argue that there are natural stages of development. Some linguistic points have to be taught in sequence and some linguistic points can be taught at any time. In this view, error correction is only useful if the student is ready for it.
question
teacher talk:
answer
The time when the teacher is speaking. H. Douglas Brown, in Teaching by Principles, recommends that teachers articulate their language, slow it down, use simpler vocabulary, and speak in structures just above the student's level. He warns against speaking loudly as the students have no problems hearing. Some authors think that teacher talk outside of discussing the lesson material may be the most effective input a teacher can give, as it is the most authentic and meaningful exchange between student and teacher.
question
teacher-centered:
answer
Methods, activities, and techniques where the teacher decides what is to be learned, what is to be tested, and how the class is to be run. Often the teacher is in the center of the classroom giving instruction with little input from students. The teacher decides the goals of the class based on some outside criteria.
question
task-based learning:
answer
Teaching/learning a language by using language to accomplish open-ended tasks. Learners are given a problem or objective to accomplish, but are left with some freedom in approaching this problem or objective.
question
task:
answer
An activity (or technique) where students are urged to accomplish something or solve some problem using their language. Preferably, this activity is open ended; there is no set way to accomplish their goal.
question
syllabus:
answer
A syllabus in the content of a language program and how it is organized. This can be contrasted to method, which is how a language program is taught. Structural syllabuses and functional syllabuses are two diferent ways of organizing language material.
question
subtractive bilingualism:
answer
When learning a second language interferes with the learning of a first language. The second language replaces the first language. This is commonly found in children who emigrate to a foreign country when they are young, especially in cases of orphans who are deprived of their first language input. This can be contrasted to additive bilingualism.
question
subordinate clause:
answer
A clause that has a subject and predicate but does not express an independent idea. Also referred to as a dependent clause. There are three kinds of subordinate clauses: adjective clauses, adverbial clauses, and noun clauses. Examples of subordinate clauses: While you were sleeping, Even though I am hungry,
question
subjunctive mood:
answer
This is a verb form used when talking about hypothetical, wishful, unreal, uncertain, imaginary, improbable, impossible, or untrue situations. Subjunctive mood has all three tenses but only two are still used in modern English: the present and the past. And of those two, really only the past subjunctive is worth discussing in the context of ESL: Simple Past Subjunctive Past I was I were You were You were He was He were She was She were It was It were For an ESL teacher, the most important subjunctive to know is the past tense form as it is used when speaking hypothetically or when using the second conditional. If I were you, I would stop bugging your teacher. Impossible: I can't be you If I won the lottery tomorrow, I would split it with you. Improbable: It is unlikely that I will win. I wish I were home in bed. I wish I talked to her earlier. Wishful and Untrue: I am not home in bed. I didn't talk to her. There are numerous other uses for the subjunctive mood but most ESL teachers have bigger fish to fry. Another subjunctive mood relic is the lack of a third person singular when making suggestions and demands: I insist that he never be admitted here again. I suggest she go to the Italian place. We use she go and he be instead of she goes and he is.
question
student-centered, learner-centered:
answer
Language activities, techniques, methods where the students/learners are the focus and the teacher plays only a periphereal role. Students are allowed some control over the activity or some input into the curriculum. These activities encourage student creativity. Group work is one kind of student-centered activity. Having students design their own test is another learner-centered activity. Individual styles and needs of the learners are taken into account. Learner-centered education is thought to be intrinsically motivating and thus beneficial. This can be contrasted to teacher-centered learning.
question
TTT and STT:
answer
Teacher Talking Time. The trend in ESL/EFL pedagogy has been to limit the amount of time that the teacher is talking and increase STT (Student Talking Time). TTT is often associated with a teacher-centered classroom and STT with a student-centered classroom. However, there are some problems with the view that student talking is good for students. For one, communication should be meaningful. Two, at the lowest levels, students may not be able to communicate effectively with each other. Three students may teach or reinforce each other's bad habits or incorrect expressions and grammar. Four, students will lack pragmatic competence in English and will not be able to pick it up from each other. A lot of research has shown that language is for the most part input driven. That is students learn most when they are being given sufficient comprehensible input.
question
structural syllabus:
answer
A syllabus in which grammatical structures form the central organizing feature. A structural syllabus proceeds from simple grammatical structure to more complex grammatical structure. An example might be something like: Present progressive -> Comparatives -> Simple past -> Past progressive. The main faults of structural syllabuses is that they tend to ignore meaning and a lot of really useful language is neglected at the beginning because it is viewed as structurally too complex (If I were you, I would). Structural syllabuses can be contrasted to functional syllabuses, which are organized according to the functions that language has (greeting, asking advice, disagreeing).
question
split infinitive:
answer
An infinitive is a verb of the form to do. It was considered improper to split the infinitive by placing an adverb in between the to and the verb, as in the following examples: To boldly go To quickly eat To fondly remember If it is possible, it should be rearranged: To eat quickly To remember fondly However, in recent years, many authorities have relented on calling this improper. Now, it is just bad style. But hey, if Kirk wants to boldly go somewhere, it's OK in my book.
question
skimming:
answer
A top-down reading activity where a learner quickly reads some material to find the gist of the material.
question
Silent Way:
answer
A designer method whereby the teacher remains mostly silent to encourage students to solve their own problems. Originated by Caleb Gattegno in the 70s, this method was meant to fascillitate learning through discovery. Students were given cuisenaire rods and used these colored rods to figure out the patterns of language based on a few examples given by the teacher. However, The language taught is structural. And hence, the main criticism is that it lacks meaningful communication. As well, it is difficult to do beyond the simplest early stages of language. But on the other hand, learning language through problem solving remained a valuable technique in later task-based language teaching.
question
sheltered instruction:
answer
Using simplified English in a classroom for students who don't speak English as a first language. Students do not specifically study English but receive content based instruction (such as math, science, or social studies) in simplified English. The language input from the teacher and textbooks is simplified to make it accessable to these students. There is some controversy about how long a student should remain in sheltered instruction.
question
second conditional:
answer
This is an if/then statement about the consequence of an untrue, impossible, imaginary, or improbable future event or action. If I won the lottery tomorrow, I would quit my job. (improbable) If I were invisible, I would play jokes on my friends. (imaginary) If had a dollar for every time I heard that, I'd be rich. (untrue) If +past tense, then + would + present tense. The second conditional describes the consequence of an impossible or improbable if clause. This can be contrasted with the first conditional which describes the consequence of a possible or probable if clause. Note: just by choosing to use the first or second conditonal you are making a statement about how likely you think an event is. If it snows tomorrow, we'll be stranded. If it snowed tomorrow, we would be stranded. In the first conditional sentence, I think there is at least some chance that it will snow, at least enough to worry about. But in the second I think it is really unlikely to snow, and I am not even worried about it. For another explanation of first and second conditionals please refer to english-net.com. For more discussion of conditionals in this glossary see: zero conditional first conditional third conditional
question
say what you mean and mean what you say:
answer
This is an interactionist view to language acquistion. Language acquisition will occur when learners are forced to negotiate meaning through conversations with teachers and other students. Those words and forms that are successful in getting the meaning across will be the ones that get acquired.
question
restrictive clauses:
answer
Adjective clauses that are essential to the meaning of a sentence. If you take the restrictive clause out of the sentence, the meaning of the sentence changes. For example: I wanted to go to a place where I had been in my youth. The man who was looking for you earlier is over there. Without the adjective clause in the first sentence, we don't know where I wanted to go. The meaning changes if we leave out this clause. In the second example, the adjective clause tells us who is over there. Again, if we leave this clause the meaning of the sentence is different. Note: Restrictive clauses are NOT puncuated with commas. Restrictive clauses can be contrasted to nonrestrictive clauses, which are punctuated with commas and are not essential to a sentence.
question
Rejoinder:
answer
A sympathetic/empathetic response such as that's too bad, that's great, or I'm sorry to hear that. Rejoinders do not convey any information as such, but they do keep the conversation going and show that the listener has understood, and is receptive. Some other rejoinders include: That's too bad. Sorry to hear that. You're kidding. That's great. No way! Get out of here! That's wonderful. You've got to be kidding.
question
recruitment fee:
answer
This is the fee that recruiters charge language institutes to pay for finding a teacher for institute. Sometimes, this is fee is hefty, over $1500 U.S. As a result, language institute owners feel they have to get that back out of their teahcers through hours worked. Some recruiters charge both language institute and teacher, and even charge a fee per month while the teacher is employed. Universities generally do not pay recruitment fees so if a teacher gets a job through a recruiter, the teacher may have to pay the fee himself or herself. Many recruiters play a valuable service by connecting employers and teachers, and hence, correcting informational deficiencies.
question
recruiter:
answer
Sometimes called the scourge of the ESL industry, because they are known to entice teachers with no experience to come to a foreign a country and do a job they are not prepared for. The recruiter then collects a hefty fee and dumps the teacher off at a language school, and provides no further support or help if trouble should arise, which it often does. This is not true of all recruiters so one should do their research well. Many recruiters play a valuable service by connecting employers and teachers, and hence, correcting informational deficiencies.
question
realia:
answer
Props or other physical items which are used to increase the realism of role-plays. Fake menus, fake contracts, and costumes are examples of realia.
question
privates:
answer
Teaching English to usually small groups of students outside of your contract. It may involve going to the apartment of some student for a few hours a week. Privates are often very lucrative, more so than regular contracts, but in some countries they are illegal and carry stiff fines and penalties such as deportation. In Japan, they are legal, whereas in Korea they are illegal.
question
pragmatic competence:
answer
This is a part of communicative competence that involves being able to use language in interpersonal relationships, taking into account such complexities as social distance and indirectness. As an example of indirectness, consider the conversation: A: How was the movie? B: Well, the sound track was ok. A second language learner may take that at face value not having the essential pragmatic knowledge that B is avoiding a direct answer because the direct answer is that the movie wasn't good. Pragmatic competence is thought to be difficult to teach and have serious real consequences for second language learners that include failing to get jobs and good grades. For an interesting article see Kasper 1997. http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/NetWorks/NW06/default.html
question
present participle:
answer
All verbs come in four forms: base, past, past participle, and present participle. The present participle is the participle ending in 'ing': base past past participle present participle ex. clean cleaned cleaned cleaning eat ate eaten eating There are several uses for the present participle: As an adjective: I saw a flying bird. As a predicate adjective: She was crying. In a participial phrase: Walking quickly, he refused to answer any questions.
question
polyword:
answer
Groups of words that act as a single word: of course for the most part the day after tomorrow in a flash Polywords are important in the lexical approach as they represent one category of 'pre-assembled' language called chunks.
question
phrasal verbs
answer
: Verbs that are used in common with other parts of speech, usually prepositions, and take on meanings of their own when combined with these other parts of speech. Phrasal verbs are very useful and plentiful, and hence provide endless teaching materials for ESL teachers. Some examples include: to go out = to date to bring up = to raise to take after = to act like to find out = to learn, to discover to put off = to postpone To see the difference that simple preposition can make in meaning: take up = do a hobby take off = undress take in = adopt take away = revoke take over = conquer The importance of phrasal verbs to ESL teaching and learning cannot be overstated. Although phrasal verbs are written as a combination of two or more words, they act as if they were one word. Phrasal verbs can be inseparable, separable, transitive, and intransitive. For a very excellent table of phrasal verbs listed by type see the Capital Community College site.
question
perfect participle:
answer
This is the participle formed using have plus the past participle. For example: The army, having fought one battle, was marching into another. Having eaten, they were in a better mood for talking. In these examples, the perfect participles are modifying nouns. Having fought modifies army and having eaten modifies they.
question
past participle:
answer
All verbs come in four forms. The past participle is the participle ending in 'ed': base past past participle present participle ex. clean cleaned cleaned cleaning eat ate eaten eating The regular past participle has an 'ed' at the end. There are also many irregular past participles which should just be memorized. For a comprehensive list of irregular verbs, see the Georgia State University web site. Past participles have several purposes: Participial adjectives: The scared cat darted into the alley. I am scared of heights. Participial phrases: Fascinated by the view, she missed the turnoff. Passive voice: The apple was eaten by the princess. Perfect tenses: I have never been to Paris.
question
passive voice:
answer
A sentence where the subject is receiving the action. This is contrasted with the active voice where the subject is doing the action. To form the passive voice you use the verb 'to be' plus the past participle. Some examples of passive voice sentences: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. JFK was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald. The Lusitania was sunk in 1917. The passive voice is often considered weak, and so, should be avoided. The active voice is considered more 'forcible' (see for example The Elements of Style by Strunk and White). However, this is unavoidable when we do not know who is doing the action as in: Wilfred Owen was killed in the Sambre Canal in 1918. And in some cases, it may be preferable to use the passive, even if we do know who did the action. (a) Galileo discovered the moons of Jupiter. (b)The moons of Jupiter were discovered by Galileo. A is more suitable in a paragraph about the accomplishments of Galileo, but B may be more appropriate in a paragraph about the moons of Jupiter.
question
participle:
answer
participles are verb forms used as adjectives. They are similar to gerunds in that they both use the same kinds of modifiers and complements. The key to understanding participles is knowing that participles act like adjectives. There are three kinds of participles: the present participle, the past participle, and the perfect participle. Examples: The dancing bears escaped from their cages. (present participle modifying bears) I gave some peanuts to the neglected monkeys. (past participle modifying monkeys) Having killed the bull, the matador faced the audience. (perfect participle modifying matador) When a participle takes modifiers and complements it is called a participial phrase as in the example: Hearing a sound outside the window, Matt went to investigate. Some common mistakes involving participles are the dangling participle and misplaced modifier.
question
noun clauses:
answer
Subordinate clauses that act as nouns: What I really hate is people who borrow money and don't pay it back. (Noun clause acting as a subject) I don't know who he is. (Noun clause acting as a direct object). Noun clauses are important for teaching embedded questions.
question
non-restrictive clauses:
answer
Adjective clauses that are not essential to the meaning of a sentence. While non-restrictive clauses do add information, the meaning of the sentence does not change if they are excluded from the sentence. For example: The captain, who was tired, stopped the march and set up camp. Mrs.Jones, who was furious with her husband, slammed the door. In both cases, the adjective clauses add color to the sentence, but are not necessary for the meaning; the reader still knows who did what. Note: Non-restrictive clauses like the ones above are punctuated by commas. Non-restrictive clauses can be contrasted to restrictive clauses, which are essential to the meaning of a sentence.
question
natural order hypothesis:
answer
This hypothesis states that there is a natural pre-determined order in which we can acquire language. Evidence for this hypothesis comes from studies of grammatical morphemes. In these studies, students tend to acquire morphemes in about the same order.
question
monitor model:
answer
A model of second language acquisition/learning developed by Krashen and based on several hypothesis: the acquisition-learning hypothesis, monitor hypothesis, input hypothesis, natural order hypothesis, and affective filter hypothesis. Essentially, adults have two ways to internalize a language. One is through a conscious effort called learning and the other is through a subconscious effort called acquisition. Fluency is a result of language acquisition, not any conscious effort to learn. Learning is only useful to 'monitor' our output and make some corrections. But because this is a only a minor benefit, acquisition is far more important to learning. Language acquisition will occur if comprehensible input is given to a learner and their affective filter is down. One controversial assertion of this model is that learning and acquisition are mutually exclusive; learning cannot become acquisition over time.
question
monitor hypothesis:
answer
According to Krashen's acquisition-learning hypothesis, there are two ways to approach language learning: acquisition and learning. Acquisition helps us produce natural, rapid, and fluent speech. Learning, which is a conscious study of form, helps us edit this speech. In other words, when we learn something it won't help us produce fluent communication, but it will help us monitor our communication and correct minor errors. However, in order for a learned system to be effective as a monitor, a learner must have sufficient time, and knowledge of the rules.
question
modal:
answer
The auxiliary verbs or helping verbs such as will, shall, can, would, could, should, might, may, and ought to. Some authors consider have to, need to, and used to to be semi-modals, but they lack some or all of the structural properties of modals. Structurally, modals have several properties (Have to is compared in brackets). Modal rule 1: They do not have a third person plural 's'. I can swim. She can swim. (I have to go. She has to go). Modal rule 2: They invert in questions. I should go. Should I go? (I have to go. Do I have to go?) Modal rule 3: They do not require do for emphasis. You could do it. You COULD do it. (You have to do it. You DO have to do it.) Modal Rule 4: They cannot be linked. I will must do it. (I will have to do it). Modal Rule 5: They have their own negatives. I couldn't call him. (I don't have to call him). Modal Rule 6: Ellipsis I can do it and so can you. (I have to do it and so do you). Semi-modals pose problems for classification. Consider the semi-modal need. Need I go? He needn't call you. Clearly, it can behave like a modal. Functionally, modals have several meanings each. Examples: Can can be used to show permission, ability, or possibility. Can I go? I can swim. It can happen. Must can be used to show certainty or obligation. You have been working all day so you must be hungry. You must work harder. For a discussion on teaching modals see: Modal ESL Activities.
question
misplaced modifier:
answer
Participles that modify the wrong word in a sentence. Usually, this is a result of placing the modifier in the wrong spot. A modifier should usually be next to the word it is referring to. For example: Putting the leash on, the dog bit John. The cat in the alley looked at me with a rat trapped under one claw. Dogs don't put on their own leashes and I don't catch rats! These should be rewritten: When John put the leash on the dog, the dog bit John. With a rat trapped under one claw, the cat looked at me. Another common error with participles is the dangling participle
question
midnight run:
answer
When a teacher leaves his or her job abruptly and then hastily departs the country to avoid contract obligations or penalties. In some cases, teachers flee because of threats made by directors, lousy conditions, or breech of contract such as late pay or no pay. In some cases, teachers leave decent jobs with directors who abide by their terms of the contract. This can cause hardship on legitimate directors, as they scramble to find a new teacher.
question
method:
answer
How a language is taught, as opposed to the syllabus, which is what language is taught. Method is made up of a set of techniques that usually reflect a certain view of language teaching. The grammar-translation method involved translating from first language to second language with an emphasis on grammar usage. Explanation was given in the learners first language. Students primarily did grammar exercises and translation. Advocates of the direct method abandonded the techniques of the grammar-translation method and replaced them with inductive grammar drills and language teaching that was conducted only in the second language.
question
listen for the gist:
answer
Top-down listening where the learner tries to understand what is happening even if she can't understand every phrase or sentence. The learner is trying to pick up key words, intonation, and other clues so as to make a guess at the meaning.
question
limited bilingualism:
answer
When a learner acquires conversational proficiency in both languages but does not attain native-like proficiency in either language.
question
lexis:
answer
A word in all its various relationships with other words. See also lexical phrases.
question
lexical phrase:
answer
Multi-word chunks of language of varying length that run on a continuum from fixed phrases like in a nutshell to slot- and- filler frames like the _____er, the _________er. Because lexical phrases are 'pre-assembled' they are very useful for creating fluent communication. They also serve the purpose of organizing dialogue and writing. And in organizing dialogue and writing, they provide cues to the listener/reader about the flow of conversation. Some examples of lexical phrases: The problem with that is . . . On the one hand . . ., one the other hand . . . What I'm trying to say is . . . So what you're saying is . . . That's beside the point
question
lexical approach:
answer
An approach to teaching languages that has a lot in common with the communicative approach, but also examines how lexical phrases, prefabricated chunks of language, play an important role in producing fluent speech. The lexical approach was first coined by Michael Lewis. The fundamental principle of the lexical approach is "language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar." What this means is that lexical phrases offer far more language generative power than grammatical structures. Accordingly, advocates of this kind of approach argue that lexis should move to the center of language syllabuses. Justification for this theory comes from statistical analysis of language which shows that we do indeed speek in chunks and collocations.
question
learning:
answer
This term presents some confusion because it has different uses in the ESL profession. One meaning is just development or gaining competence in area. The other meaning is much more specific: In Krashen's acquisition-learning hypothesis, learning involes a conscious study of the form of language. According to Krashen, learning will not lead to rapid, fluent, natural speech. This does seem to be the case in much of Asia where learners who had excessive training in grammar were unable to engage in the simple conversations. Happily, the structure of language courses has changed significantly in recent years.
question
student-centered, learner-centered:
answer
Language activities, techniques, methods where the students/learners are the focus and the teacher plays only a periphereal role. Students are allowed some control over the activity or some input into the curriculum. These activities encourage student creativity. Group work is one kind of student-centered activity. Having students design their own test is another learner-centered activity. Individual styles and needs of the learners are taken into account. Learner-centered education is thought to be intrinsically motivating and thus beneficial. This can be contrasted to teacher-centered learning.
question
L2:
answer
L2 is an abbreviation for second language, or a language that is not the mother tongue. Sometimes, it is used to refer to speakers who are speaking a second lanuage. Often contrasted with l1.
question
L1:
answer
L1 is an abbreviation for first language, or mother tongue. Sometimes it is used to refer to speakers who are speaking their mother tongue. Often contrasted with L2.
question
just listen:
answer
This is a theoretical view to language teaching in the classroom, where learners are not required to produce language. Instead, they just read and listen. Given enough comprehensible input, language will be acquired and there is no need for error correction or formal instruction at all. The practical implication of this view is that a teacher's job is to find interesting sources of linguistic input for students. This view is controversial, however.
question
intrinsic motivation:
answer
Motivation in learning that comes from a sense of empowerment in being able to do something. Doing something for the sake of doing it without thought of rewards such as praise, grades, candy, or money. Intrinsic motivation can be contrasted with extrinsic motivation where the learner performs a task in order to receive some kind of reward. Intrinsic motivation is thought to have far greater benefits in the long run. This in turn suggests that ESL teachers should try to foster intrinsic motivation instead of providing rewards for doing well. However, because ESL teacher rarely have long term contact with students, they opt for the quick fix solutions to make their classes run smoothly now - something to think about next time you want to bribe a class of hyperactive grade 4s with candy and a quiz.
question
integrative motivation:
answer
When students want to learn a language to become part of a speech community (integrate). People who immigrate to new countries are some examples of people who may want to identify with the community around them. An important aspect of this form of language learning is using language for social interaction. This form of motivation is thought to produce success in language learners. This is often compared to instrumental motivation.
question
interlanguage:
answer
In the process of acquiring a second language, a language learner may acquire forms of language that are in between their first language and their target language. This can happen when, for example, they incorrectly apply rules of their native language to the target language, or they have not completely learned the full extent or limitations of a rule's use and so misapply it systematically. Interlanguage may seem completely logical and correct in the mind of a language learner. It may also be a part of a natural learning process where rules get more refined as more input is received. However, if learners fail to receive corrective feedback, these interlanguage forms may fossilize.
question
interactionism:
answer
This is the theoretical view that children have some innate knowledge of the structures of language but also require meaningful interaction with others to acquire language structures. In the end, those structures which get acquired are exactly those that were able to convey meaning. This theory suggests that student-centered methods are important as they give more opportunity to interact.
question
instrumental motivation:
answer
Wanting to learn a language for the purpose of obtaining some concrete goals such as a job, graduation, or the ability to read academic materials. This form of motivation is thought to be less likely to lead to success than integrative motivation. For an interesting article discussing this visit the Internet TESL Journal. http://iteslj.org/Articles/Norris-Motivation.html
question
input hypothesis:
answer
According to Stephen Krashen the only way we can acquire language is by receiving comprehensible input. That is, we have to receive input that is just beyond our competence but not beyond our understanding. However, this hypothesis was later modified so that comprehensible input was a necessary but not sufficient condition for acquisition. Learners have to also have the right environment and circumstances to allow comprehensible input to work. A learner's affective filter has to be low; they have to be free of stress and motivated.
question
innatism:
answer
This is the theoretical view that children have an innate knowledge of the structures of language. Children are born with a knowledge of Universal Grammar (or as called by Krashen a language acquisition device) that gives them access to the universal principles of human language. It is because of this innate knowledge that children can learn a complex language with relatively little input. Innatism can be contrasted with interactionism, a theory where meaningful interaction along with innate knowledge combine to make language acquisition possible.
question
grammatical morpheme:
answer
Markers such as the past participle 'ed used in the past tense, the present participle 'ing' used in the present progressive, or third person singular 's'. Here are some example: present progressive ing: He is playing. plurals s: Ten pencils. possesive 's: John's hat. past tense ed: I cleaned the floor. A study undertaken by Roger Brown discovered that most children acquire morphemes in approximately the same order. This study suggested that there may be a natural order, or developmental stages in which we acquire language. Other studies on second language learners suggest the second language learners also acquire grammatical morphemes in stages similar to first language learners (though the stages may not be identical). See Roger Brown, A First Language: the Early Stages published by Harvard University Press.
question
grammar translation method:
answer
A dull, dry, and ineffective teaching method completely devoid of theoretical justification. The method has its roots in the teaching of latin. The method focuses on translating grammatical forms, memorizing vocabulary, learning rules, and studying conjugations. Its focus is on accuracy and not fluency. Emphasis is on form and not on meaning. Paragraphs are dissected for form, while students and teacher could care less if the paragraph actually has anything worth saying. Another problem with this method is that most of the teaching is done through explanation in the learner's first language. Much scholarship has been spent on debunking this form of teaching. Sadly, it is still in use in some parts of Asia. It has produced generations of students who could trip up native-speaking teachers on questions of grammar, yet couldn't engage in simple conversations. However, no method should be entirely discarded. Some have claimed that aspects of this method are useful in teaching writing.
question
get it right in the end:
answer
This view of language teaching is similar to 'teach what is teachable'. Learners will acquire most language naturally, and they should be exposed to meaningful, comprehensible input from the beginning. However, there are some things that won't be acquired such as language where there is transfer from a learner's first language. In these cases, it is approriate to offer some corrective feedback and study some linguistic forms, although this focus does not have to involve explicit explanations of language grammar and rules.
question
get it right from the beginning:
answer
This is a behaviouralist view to learning language and error correction. Language is a matter of habit and getting speakers into good habits means producing error free speech from the beginning. Drills are hoisted on students until they get it right. This is the least enlightened of language teaching and error correction methods. Drilling students does not generally result in competency and fluency in language. In fact, this approach may hinder more than help language acquisition.
question
Gerund:
answer
Gerunds are verb forms used as nouns. They are similar to participles in that they both use the same kinds of modifiers and complements. The key to understanding gerunds is knowing that gerunds act like nouns. Where you can place a noun, you place a gerund. Examples: Running is good exercise. (Gerund used as a subject noun) Walking to school is a good idea. My hobby is hiking. (Gerund used as a direct object) I reached him by calling his office. (Gerund used as the object of a preposition). Note: the difference between: My hobby is hiking. and John is hiking. Litmus tests for gerunds: Can you put a noun there? Tennis is good exercise. The wheel was a good idea. My hobby is chess. I reached him by email.
question
functional syllabus:
answer
Language programs with functions being the primary organizing feature. The course content is based on functions not grammatical structures. A typical unit might be Giving Advice. The content of the unit would include: I think you should . . . Why don't you . . . If I were you, I would . . . You'd better . . . This could be a very basic unit taught to beginners even though the grammatical complexity of these expressions is quite high (including a second conditional with subjunctive mood!). This can be contrasted to structural syllabuses where the syllabus is ordered according to grammatical complexity. Other examples of functions include asking for directions, telling stories about the past, talking about rules, and requesting information.
question
functional English:
answer
Teaching English according to the function it used for, as opposed to its grammatical complexity. For example, a lesson based on functional English might group together the phrases: Why don't you . . .? I think you should . . . If I were you, I would . . . All of these phrases, have differing grammatical complexity, but serve the same function of giving advice. Other common functions include: asking for advice, asking for directions, offering help, telling stories, talking about the past, talking about obligations.
question
fossilization:
answer
When an error becomes a habit of speech in a second language learner. This happens especially when the error does not interfere with communication, and hence, the speaker does not get corrective feedback.
question
fluency:
answer
Fluency refers to the ability to produce rapid, flowing, natural speech, but not necessarily grammatically correct speech. This is often contrasted with accuracy.
question
first conditional:
answer
This is an if/then statement about the consequence of a possible or probable future event or action. If you build it, they will come. If she tries, she might succeed. If he touches my beer, I'm going to kill him. If + present tense sentence, then + future tense sentence. The first conditional describes the consequence of a possible if clause. This can be contrasted with the second conditional which describes the consequence of an unlikely, improbable, or imaginary if clause. For more discussion of conditionals in this glossary see: zero conditional second conditional third conditional
question
faulty parallelism:
answer
A common error when listing things or actions. Everything in a list should take the same form. For example: I am learning swimming and how to play the piano. X In the above sentence, swimming and how to play the piano are different forms. This should be: I am learning how to swim and play the piano.. O More examples: I like horror movies, action movies, and movies about war. X I like horror movies, action movies, and war movies. O He has a sense of humor, good looks and is intelligent. X He has a sense of humor, good looks, and intelligence. O For more resources, visit the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire's Online Reading Room.
question
extrinsic motivation:
answer
Motivation through rewards such as points, candies, compliments, money, test scores, or grades. These rewards are externally administered and may inhibit learning in the long run, although seeming to be effective in the short run. One problem is that they are addictive. Researchers generally agree that intrinsic motivation is better for long-term learning. (See for example, H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles
question
ESP:
answer
English for Specific Purposes. This includes English for scientists, English for academic purposes, English for doctors/health care workers, tourism English, and English for international conferences.
question
ESOL:
answer
English for Speakers of Other Languages.
question
ESL:
answer
English as a second language. Originally this term referred to non-native speakers who are learning English language in an English language environment, for example, immigrants to the U.K., Canada, or the U.S. This can be contrasted to EFL. However, now it has become a standard term to mean learning English by a non-native speaker regardless of the environment.
question
error correction:
answer
An important issue for ESL teachers is when and how to correct the errors of language learners. Some researchers feel there is no need to correct errors at all, as errors will auto correct. However, some researchers think that error correction is necessary. Among those who think it is necessary, there are those who say 'get it right from the beginning' to those who only care if they 'get it right in the end.' Different classroom theories propose different solutions for error correction. See the following views: 'Get it right from the beginning', 'say what you mean and mean what you say', 'just listen', 'teach what is teachable', and 'get it right in the end.' Too much correction might frustrate learners and raise their affective filters. Too little correction might result in fossilization of errors.
question
embedded questions:
answer
These are noun clauses that begin with who, what, where, when, why, how, or if. They are called embedded questions because they look as if they are questions inside sentences. Here are some examples: I don't know who he is. I can't remember where I put it. I wonder when she left. Can you tell me where it is? Ask her who the new teacher is. I'm not sure what time it is. Tell me who you are. Note: The verb order is not transposed as it is in a question.
question
EFL:
answer
English as a foreign language. Originally this term referred to non-native speakers who are learning English language in a non-native English environment, for example, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese learning English in Korea, China, and Japan. This can be contrasted to ESL. However, now ESL has become a standard term to mean learning English by a non-native speaker regardless of the environment. Also, EFL is used more in Europe, whereas ESL is used more in Asia and North America.
question
EAP:
answer
English for Academic Purposes. This branch of ESL/EFL includes teaching students how to write formally, give presentations at conferences, and read academic works.
question
direct method:
answer
A method of language learning associated with Francois Gouin and Charles Berlitz. Second language learning should model first language learning in that it should be learned 'directly'; grammar is taught inductively with no explanations, the learner's first language is not used in the class, and new vocabulary is introduced by demonstration. This method came about as a much needed replacement for the grammar-translation method (classical method) in the late 1800s. It faded in the early 1900s as it was not practical in classroom settings, and then saw a comeback under the name of the audiolingual method after World War II.
question
designer methods:
answer
One of many highly idiosyncratic methods that were developed in the 70s. See for example, suggestopedia, the silent way, or TPR
question
de-lexicalized word:
answer
Words that have a very wide applicability but have very little meaning on their own. Michael Lewis, in his book the Lexical Approach, divides de-lexicalized words into two categories: verbs and functions. Some examples of de-lexicalized verbs are take, give, have, make, do, get. Some examples of de-lexicalized function words are with, of, by, and on. De-lexicalized words have little meaning on their own but have strong generative power. As an example, consider get: get - become more of some characteristic get older, get colder, get uglier get - change in life which is recognized officially get married, get divorced, get promoted get - receive get paid, get a loan, get a present get - be allowed get to watch TV, get to sleep at a friend's house get - move to another place get in, get out, get down, get back
question
dangling participle:
answer
Participles are often used incorrectly in both speech and writing. One common mistake is to use a participle loosely, not modifying any noun in particular. Examples: Feeding the animals, the lion suddenly attacked. Singing in the shower, the thief was able to sneak in unnoticed. In the first one, the lion is not feeding the animals so feeding does not modify anything in the sentence. In the second one, it is the victim that is singing not the thief, and so, again, the participle is not modifying anything in the sentence.
question
critical period hypothesis:
answer
The hypothesis that if somebody does not acquire a first language before a certain time (around puberty), they will lose the ability to acquire language. There are two versions of this hypothesis: The strong version states that language acquisition will be impossible after this point has been reached. The weak version states that acquisition will be difficult after this period has been reached.
question
content-centered education:
answer
Teaching language through content in areas such as math, science, and social studies. Language is no longer the main focus, but instead language is picked up while focusing on other regular content. This type of teaching is especially popular in ESL settings
question
conditional:
answer
This an if/then statement. For example: If you come late, call me. Will you go if I ask you? If I had a million dollars, I would buy craft dinner. The conditionals are often categorized according to their tense and purpose. For more detail see: zero conditional first conditional second conditional third conditional
question
concordance:
answer
Concordances are a bodies of authentic language samples from a wide variety of sources arranged in such a way on a page that a key word or phrase is highlighted many times so that the word or phrase and the surrounding context are able to be linguistically analyzed .
question
Comprehensible output hypothosis
answer
It assumes (incorrectly) that we acquire language when we 'produce' it, for example, in social interactions that prompt us to refuormulate our speech so it becomes understandable to others. However, acquisition frequently occurs from listening and reading alone - that is with no output whatsoever- which goes to show that "practicing their English" cannot be essential.
question
comprehensible input:
answer
A hypothesis that learners will acquire language best when they are given the appropriate input. The input should be easy enough that they can understand it, but just beyond their level of competence. If the learner is at level i, then input should come at level i+1. Comprehensible input is an essential component in Stephen Krashen's Input Hypothesis, where regulated input will lead to acquistion so long as the input is challenging, yet easy enough to understand without conscious effort at learning. One problem with this hypothesis is that i and i+1 are impossible to identify, though arguably teachers can develop an intuition for appropriate input. That is, teachers develop an intuition of how to speak to be understood.
question
communicative approach:
answer
A set of principles about teaching including recommendations about method and syllabus where the focus is on meaningful communication not structure, use not usage. In this approach, students are given tasks to accomplish using language, instead of studying the language. The syllabus is based primarily on functional development (asking permission, asking directions, etc.), not structural development (past tense, conditionals, etc.). In essence, a functional syllabus replaces a structural syllabus. There is also less emphasis on error correction as fluency and communication become more important than accuracy As well, authentic and meaningful language input becomes more important. The class becomes more student-centered as students accomplish their tasks with other students, while the teacher plays more of an observer role. In recent years, some authors have combined an emphasis on lexis with the communicative approach to suggest a lexical approach to language learning and teaching. A word of caution: every ESL textbook claims to be based on the communicative approach. Whether they are infact or not is another question.
question
collocates:
answer
words that tend to be associated with each other, or co-occur in sentences. Some words that collocate well with wedding are white, cake, ring, shotgun, and vows. Collocates are important in ESL because they help to explain why some learner language is grammatically correct and the meaning is apparent, yet the utterance seems strange - we don't usually say that. For example, in North America, I am going to clean my teeth is a grammatically correct and comprehensible sentence, but teeth collocates so well with brush that it seems awkward (In England, however, clean and teeth do collocate well). Collocations often interfere in native like production* as learners substitute the collocations from their own language into English grammar. Koreans, for example, will say, "I am going to go eye-shopping." in place of "window-shopping." For a very interesting web site with a tool on how to check collocates, visit the Collins Cobuild Concordance and Collocation Sampler. *Native like is a controversial term because native speaker is not well defined. The collocations that one set of 'native speakers' use may be different from another set of 'native speakers'. There is no standard by which all language can be compared.
question
cognitive feedback:
answer
Cognitive feedback is when teachers (or anybody) display signs that they understand what a learner is trying to communicate. Essentially, the listener is signaling, "I understand." or "I don't understand." Positive cognitive feedback sometimes has a negative consequence: Learners make mistakes, but because they are understood, they don't change their language habits. This can result in fossilization of errors. Therefore, some error correction may be necessary, but too much will lower self-esteem and raise learners' affective filters. There are no hard rules, but teachers will eventually develop intuition on when correction is necessary. Cognitive feedback can be contrasted with affective feedback, where a listener (teacher) signals the extent that the want to listen.
question
CLT:
answer
Communicative Language Teaching. See communicative approach.
question
CELTA:
answer
Certificate in English Language Teaching to Adults. This accreditation is comparable to a TEFL certificate. It is offered by the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). Generally, it has a good reputation This course is usually offered on a part-time basis over several months or a full-time basis over four weeks. Go to the Cambridge Website CELTYL: Certificate in English Language Teaching to Young Learners (the YL extension designating Young Learners). Go to the Cambridge website.
question
caretaker talk:
answer
People who interact with young children often intuitively modify their language. Adults choose simpler sentences and vocabulary, repeat themselves, and paraphrase what children say. This simplified (modified) input is thought to help with language acquisition, though children may receive it from a variety of sources, including older siblings.
question
bottom-up:
answer
Language learning that proceeds from the most basic blocks of language, such as words, and then proceeding to more complex structures, and finally to meaning. This can be contrasted to top-down learning where students try to understand the general message without understanding all of the constituent parts. Listening for exact phrases and words would be considered a bottom-up listening activity, whereas listening for the gist would be considered a top-down activity. Also, studying individual grammatical structures or sentence structures would be bottom-up.
question
behaviorism:
answer
This is the theoretical view that language learning is a matter of habit formation. The learner mimics the language they hear, and when they receive some positive feedback, that language becomes a habit. This view is criticized because it does not explain how a child can acquire something as complex as a language with so little input and feedback.
question
automatic processing:
answer
When speech is produced with only 'peripheral attention to language forms.' (Taken from H. Douglas Brown, Teaching by Principles). Automatic processing is necessary for producing fluent speech as language rapidly becomes more complex.
question
aural learners:
answer
Learners who benefit more from left-brained activities. Aural learners learn respond well to oral instruction as opposed to visual instruction. The implication for ESL teaching is that learners have different styles of learning and a teacher should try to accommodate various learning styles. See also: visual learners.
question
audiolingual approach(method?):
answer
Language learning is a matter of habit formation. Drill! Drill! Drill! Audiolingualism is based on behaviorism. Error correction is considered important to prevent bad habits. As well, a structural syllabus is used in class. As a result grammatical structures are brought to the forefront with meaning being neglected. Audiolingualism is largely discredited in academic circles, though in some places it is still practiced. Some authors refer to it as an approach and some refer to it as just a method since it lacks a major theoretical foundation.
question
articles:
answer
English language has both indefinite (a/an/some) and definite (the) articles. Articles are one of the first parts of speech introduced to learners but one of the last to be acquired. The evidence suggests that articles cannot be taught, but are acquired over a long period of time. Part of the problem is that in English there are so many exceptions to the one basic rule. The basic rule is that when a noun is introduced, we use a/an and thereafter we use the. For example, I saw a cat. The cat was black. The cat was eating a fish. The fish was rotten so the cat died. The first time cat and fish are introduced we use a and all of the times after we use the because it is understood which cat and which fish we are talking about. The definite articles are used anytime it is understood which noun we are talking about. This rule suggests that articles cannot be taught in the context of which words take which articles, because the same noun can take both articles in the same paragraph. The exceptions to this basic rule are numerous: (1) If there is only one of the noun (so it is implicitly understood already which one you are talking about),use the: The sun, the moon, the king of England. (2) Some abstract nouns don't take articles. TV, Church, School I went to school embodies more than just going to the building. It includes teachers and instruction and all else that happens at the school, and so it is abstract. (3) Proper Nouns: New York, David, 5th avenue.
question
approach:
answer
A set of principles about teaching including views on method, syllabus, and a philosophy of language and learning. Approaches have theoretical backing with practical applications. The communicative approach has affected language teaching greatly, changing the focus away from structure to meaning and accuracy to fluency. In this approach, a functional syllabus replaces a structural syllabus. In recent years, some authors have combined an emphasis on lexis with the communicative approach to suggest a lexical approach to language learning and teaching.
question
appositive:
answer
An appositive is noun (or noun phrase) that is juxtaposed with another noun and helps to define or clarify the noun as in the following examples (the appositive is underlined the noun being described or modified is in bold): Marvin the paranoid android had a brain the size of a planet. My friend Tom got engaged to the Judge's daughter, Becky. By convention, appositives can be offset by commas, but are not always offset by commas. In the following example, the appositive is offset by commas: Ramses II, ruler of Egypt from 1279 BC to 1213 BC, invaded the Hittite Empire. Appositives can be restrictive or non-restrictive. Restrictive appositives define the noun and are essential to its meaning: The body was that of a peasant, the son of the village blacksmith. Non-restrictive appositives are not essential to the meaning of the noun. In other words, we know exactly what the noun is even without the appositive. Drizzt Do'Urden, the dark elf, saw the orcs approaching and drew his blade. Here is an ESL role-play with appositives as one of the language targets.
question
affective-filter hypothesis:
answer
Krashen argues that comprehensible input is not enough to ensure language acquisition. Language learners also have to be receptive to that input. When learners are bored, angry, frustrated, nervous, unmotivated or stressed, they may not be receptive to language input and so they 'screen' the input. This screen is referred to as the affective filter. This suggests that when learners are bored, angry, frustrated, nervous, unmotivated or stressed, they may be unsuccessful at learning a second language. This has very practical implications for language teachers: lower their affective filters. One problem with this hypothesis is the difficulty in determining cause and effect: Are language learners unsuccessful because they are bored, angry, and stressed? Or are language learners bored, angry, and stressed because they are unsuccessful?
question
affective filter:
answer
This is an imaginary wall that is placed between a learner and language input. If the filter is on, the learner is blocking out input. The filter turns on when anxiety is high, self-esteem is low, or motivation is low. Hence, low anxiety classes are better for language acquisition. Another implication is that too much correction will also raise the affective filter as self-esteem in using the language drops.
question
affective feedback:
answer
Affective feedback is when teachers (or anybody) display signs about how interested they are in trying to understand the student. These signs come in the form of gestures, facial expressions, and intonations. Positive affective feedback will encourage the learner to continue even if it is clear that the listener cannot fully understand. Negative affective feedback will stop a learner from speaking entirely and raise their affective filter. Affective feedback can be contrasted with cognitive feedback, where a listener signals whether he or she understands what is being said.
question
adverbial clauses:
answer
Subordinate clauses that act as adverbs. Adverbial clauses tell us when, where, how, why, and to what extent something happened. When: (Answers when something happened) While you were out, someone called. Before he came, he called. As soon as you are finished, call me. Why: (Answers why something happened) I ordered two pizzas as we were all hungry. I failed because I didn't study. I fixed it so that anybody could use it. Where: (Answers where something happened) This card is accepted wherever you go. How: (Answers how something happened) She talked as if she were a princess. He swam as if he were a fish in the sea. Ideas commonly expressed by adverbial clauses are: time - when, as soon as, before place - where, wherever manner - as if degree - than, as ____ as _______ reason, purpose or cause - because, since, so that condition - if, unless concession - although, even though,
question
adjective clauses:
answer
Subordinate clauses that act as adjectives. They modify nouns: I saw a man who I had never seen. Here are the items that you requested. I couldn't find the house where I lived as a boy. Here is an adjective clause modifying a noun clause with an adverbial clause thrown in as well: What he often does that really annoys me is interrupt me when I am speaking to someone. Adjective clauses can be restrictive or nonrestrictive. All of the examples above are restrictive clauses.
question
additive bilingualism:
answer
When learning a second language does not interfere with the learning of a first language. Both languages are developed. This can be contrasted to subtractive bilingualism.
question
Active Voice
answer
Sentences where the subject is the doer of the action, not the receiver of the action. This is contrasted to the passive voice where the subject is receiving the action. Some examples: I shot the elephant four times before it fell. She jumped the fence. The active voice is thought to be more brisk and vigorous, and, hence, preferable to the passive voice.
question
acquisition-learning hypothesis:
answer
According to Stephen Krashen, adult second language learners can develop second language learning. One method is learning, a conscious study of the forms of language. The other method is acquisition, or just picking up a language the way children do without conscious attention to forms. Krashen further argues that acquisition is far more beneficial in terms of producing fluent, natural communication in another language. Krashen also asserts that learning cannot change into acquisition. Note: Learning can be a confusing word because in the acquisition-learning hypothesis it has a very precise meaning: a conscious study of rules and forms. However, learning is also used in a more general sense of becoming more proficient or knowledgable in something. So for example, in the sentence: Second language learners can acquire or learn a language. the meaning of learn is different in the two instances where it is used. Perhaps, this confusion wouldn't have resulted if Krashen had chosen study in place of learn.
question
acquisition:
answer
Picking up a language through meaningful conversation the way children pick up languages. There is no study of forms and grammar. Acquisition is contrasted to learning a language through conscious study of forms. In Krashen's acquisition-learning hypothesis, acquisition is far superior to learning because it is language that is acquired that is available for fluent, rapid, and natural speech. Acquisition will occur when a learner is exposed to meaningful, comprehensible input.
question
accuracy:
answer
Accuracy refers to the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences that are comprehensible. This is often contrasted with fluency.
