IB History HL – Chinese Civil War – Flashcards
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The Manchu Dynasty
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- in 1900, the Qing family ruled Cina (they were from Manchuria, known as the Manchu dynasty) - China had become advanced esp. in astronomy, mathematics, engineering and medicine
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European Influence
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- By 1900, the empire was weak. - main reason was European countries had gained influence in the affairs by force - 1839-42, British Opium War to force China to buy Opium from India - 1860 2nd Opium war, Anglo-French army attacked Beijing, burning down government buildings. - by the end of 1800s, Europeans had divided China into spheres of influence - EU was very unpopular in China. --many Chinese blamed the Manchu for allowing China to be overrun by EU, plotting to overthrow.
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Taiping Rebellion
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In 1850, the rebellion against the Manchus broke out - lasting 14 years and was the worst in China's history. - between 1850-64, large areas of land were razes, 600 cities were ruined and 20 million people killed. - Manchus put down rebellion with EU help, making them more unpopular
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Unequal treaties
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- in 1894-95, the Japanese struck at China taking away Korea, Formosa and Port Arthur, after which the invaders forced the Manchu to sign 'unequal treaties' giving them control of China's seaports and special trading privileges.
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Reforms - 1898
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The Emperor Guangxu tried to modernize China - in 100 days of reform, he introduced new schools, colleges, new exams. Improved the government's budget and demised corrupt officials. However the emperor's aunt Empress Dowager Cixi didn't approve, so had him imprisoned and gained all power of China by collaborating with the conservatives.
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The Boxer Rebellion, 1900
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During the 100 days, opposition was common as many hated the foreigners and there was famine in the countryside. - rebellion was organized by Yi-ho Tuan movement (militia), who esp. hated the Chinese converters to Christianity. - start, boxers opposed the Manchus but Cixi got them to her side by giving them support and encouraging attacks on foreigners. - climaxed in 1900 when they killed EU and Christians whom they had captured, EU governments sent an armed force to Beijing, but were defeated by the Boxers who had help from a Chinese army. - In Beijing, boxers rose and attacked French Cathedrals; trapped 1000 foreigners and kept them under siege for 2 months. - EU governments were angry and sent a 6-nation army to defeat them, forcing the Manchus to pay 67 million pound fine; executing boxers in the streets. -- making the Chinese hate the EU even more, ands bowed the weakness of the Manchus
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Post- boxer rebellion
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Empress realized the necessity of changes. - in 1905, began to modernize education - she created a new army modeled on EU armies. - she promised the creation of a parliament and democratic elections - BUT she was too late. The anti-Manchu/Foreigner movement had spread to too many people.
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The Revolution of 1911 - Sun Yatsen
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He was an enemy of the Manchu, travelled the West and Japan and saw that China is backward and weak. - he founded secret societies with the aim of overthrowing Manchu to create China on Western lines. -- from 1894-1905, he led a 'revive China society' and in 1905 he founded the 'Tongmenghui'. with the aims of eliminating the Manchus/monarchy and open road to socialism. - by 1911 he had attempted 10 revolutions but had failed.
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The Revolution of 1911 - the last year of the Manchus
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- in 1908, Empress died, was succeeded by 2 year-old nephew, Puyi. - But his uncle, Chun, had the power and he was conservative and corrupt. - he dismissed many powerful/able officials, incl. chief military commander in N. China Yuan Shikai. - in 1911, China entered economic difficulty: harvest failed (worst crop failure in 40 yrs); wealthier classes were angry because taxes were increased to pay for the New Army.
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The Rebellion of 1911 - the Wuchang Rebellion
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In September 1911, a rebellion began against the government in Sichuan after police shot on a crowd of demonstrators. - Agents of Sun Yatsen's 'Sworn Chinese Brotherhood' went to Sichuan to spread rebellion. - On the 10th October, soldiers of the New Army in their base at Wuchang joined in an uprising. - With the help of the New Army, the rebels took control of the area, from there rebellion spread through central and southern China becoming a full-scale rebellion. - By the end of November, 15/18 provinces had joined the revolution. - In Nanjing the rebels formed a provisional government in opposition to the Manchu government in Beijing. - The Manchus tried to deal with the revolution by recalling Yuan Shikai from retirement - He was made prime minister and commander in chief of the armies and was told to crush the rebels which he did but he first made a deal with the leaders. - in return for their support, he promised to help persuade Chun and Puyi to give up throne and make China into a republic Yuan Shikai would become President of the Republic.
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Contest for leadership
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24th december when Sun Yatsen came back from America, he was titled the President of "the United Provinces of China" by the rebels of Nanjing. - contest for leadership now happened between Shikai and Yatsen. - Sun was democratic choice of rebels, but Yuan had army support - Yuan became president in February 1912, Sun resigned without protest and Chun/Puyi stepped down.
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The Presidency of Yuan Shikai, 1912-16
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'Constitutional republic' meant to be a democracy - it wasn't the Guomindang was ignored by Shikai. -January 1914, he dissolved GMD and made him president for 10 more years. - he gained EU support, who wanted a strong government to protect trading interests. - by 1915, he made himself emperor with opposition by the GMD who wanted democracy; generals/military governors and the Japanese government planning to control large areas of China.
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21 Demands
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Early 1915 the Japanese Government presented Shikai with 21 demands - control of China's factories, railways, ports, threatening war if demands were refused. - Chinese were outraged, he lost popularity when he accepted. - 25th December 1915, army in Yunnan province (and close by armies) rebelled, and he dropped plans to become emperor. - June 1916, he died of a stroke
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The warlords
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After Shikai's death, there were 11 years (1916-27) of the central government in Beijing only controlling a little of the surrounding area. - in the south the GMD set up rival government in Guangzhou, but in other areas military governors and warlords took over. - Conditions were worse in China when the warlords fought each other to get control of provinces. -- largest civil war (1920-22) with 300,000 soldiers.
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May Fourth Movement
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Protests against the ToV occurred on 4th may 1919 because China wanted back Kiaochow (which Germany had seized); japan to withdraw 21 demands and an end to the 'unequal treaties' - but they got none. - 100,000 students organised demonstration - boycotting Japanese goods put China in unrest for month of May. - movement added strength to revolutionary idea of 'New Tide' (1916) -- aimed to modernize freedom, equality, science; simplify complex language to increase literacy; end of foreign control but used foreign ideas to do it.
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Communists and the GMD
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In 1917, Sun was reorganizing GMD, that they were to be based on: National freedom, democracy, people's livelihood. -requiring foreign help to get rid of warlords/foreign influence - turning to the Soviet Union in 1922 who sent organizers to recreate GMD along soviet lines. - he said that Chinese Communists could join, because they both wanted revolution. in 1923, Russia sent two more agents to create a strong army to beat warlords, and to set up military academy led by Sun's brother in law, Chiang Kai-shek
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Chiang Kai-shek and the Northern Campaign
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March 1925, Sun died of cancer and Chiang became commander-in-chief of GMD army and in July he began a march to the North at the head of the GMD armies, sending ahead agents to whip up support (which wasn't hard to get). - a GMD army, led by communists, captured Hankow and set up government in September 1926 and another set up a nationalist government. - where there was no support, Chiang bribed the poor peasants and workers.
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The Communist and GMD split
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Alliance broke, with south and north being conquered. - as the GMD armies approached Shanghai, the workers rebelled against the warlord (rebellion being led by communists under Zhou Enlai, who set up a communist council to run the city) - When Chiang's army arrived later, it took over the streets and rounded up all the communists and killed them. - communists retreated to the country side and Chiang got ready to conquer China.
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Unification of China
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April 1928, Chiang was made leader of GMD with plans to bring N. China under control - by cooperating with 2 warlords in the north, to fight strongest warlord Zhang Zuolin (ruler of Manchuria, including Beijing). - Chiang's forces soon entered Beijing, made easier when a bomb exploded killing Zhang (his successor surrendered making GMD true government of China.
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Disunity
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Chiang hadn't unified China, just conquered north with warlords. -in 1929, allied warlords (Feng and Yan) rebelled and for two years North China suffered violent bloody civil war. - when Yan was defeated, he retreated to Shanxi province and set up government. - existence of large gangs of bandits, looting and kidnapping was big problem.
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The Jiangxi Soviet
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Communists retreated there and set up "Chinese Soviet Republic" - Mao was leader while Zhu De Led led the army - Communists had support from peasants b/c of land law from 1930 (divided up cultivated land among farming population; reduced taxes; set up schools; abolished arranged marriages) - Communist Red Army also helped get support.
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The Extermination Campaigns, 1930-4
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Chiang saw Communists as great threat. - Chiang created 5 extermination campaigns, first 4 failed. - Mao's tactics = lure GMD into Communist area then attack units separately, but during luring GMD captured villages (more than a million peasants were captured, killed or starved). -- many communists said his tactics were wrong.
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Fifth Campaign (Autumn 1933)
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- new method by military advisers from Germany, General Hans von Seeckt - surrounding the Jaingxi Soviet, stop all movement in/out, starving them. - was successful, by October 1934, Communists had lost over half their territory and 60,000 soldiers had been killed.
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New Communist Tactics
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New tactics suggested by Russian agent (Otto Braun) insisted that Red Army should defend by fighting head on. - backed by 24 russian trained leaders of the Jiangxi province. Mao's tactics were abandoned and he was expelled from the central committee. - New tactic was used but in Battle of Guanchang (April 1934), Red Army lost 8000 men. - by the end of 1934 summer, the Red Army was caged in, Mao suggested breaking through lines to attack GMD at rear, Braun rejected this and Russian trained leaders planned a retreat to head for a communist base on the Hunan-Hubei border.
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The Long March
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16th October 1934, 87000 soldiers of Red Army set out on retreat plan taking with them equipment that they would need. - it took 6 weeks to break through blockhouses, but as soon as they did they had to fight battle at the Xiang river losing 45,000 men -- in town, Zunyi on 9th January 1935, leaders of the Communist party, held a meeting to work out better tactics, suspending Braun and putting back Mao.
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Mao Takes Control
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Under Mao, the army went squiggly across China - Army's new destination was Shaanxi province in North China, where another Soviet had control of the Yanan District. - they were harassed by GMD, warlords and hostile non-chinese tribesmen - Long march finished in October 1935, less then 10,000 men survived. Over 9000 kilometers, 368 days of walking, hunger, accidents... - however the arrival of the 2nd and 4th front armies restored the Red Army strength to 80,000.
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Manchuria
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By 1927 the Japanese had a stranglehold on manchuria's economy, controlling all important mines, railways and factories (kept a large army to protect investments) - Japanese began to fear collaboration between Chiang and Zhang (warlord) as they had friendly agreement, so they assassinated Zhang.
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Manchurian Invasion, 1931
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By 1931, Japanese economy was in trouble. Young officers talked about foreign conquests to improve trade, resources and jobs. - Officer in the Kwantung Army planned a military takeover of Manchuria (against Japanese government's orders) - on the night of 18th September 1931, the army occupied Shenyang, claiming Chinese had tried to blow up south Manchurian railway - soldiers went on to occupy - Chiang favoured relying on the League to stop the invasion, the League sent a commission of inquiry to investigate (but had no teeth), during this time, Japan occupied the rest of Manchuria. - February 1932, they renamed it Manzhougou and put Puyi on the throne (but he was figurehead, Japanese officers ruled)
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From Manchuria to a United Front, 1931-7
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Japan wanted more in 1933, occupying Rehe province, in 1934 continued to advance southward. - by the end of 1936, it had occupied the provinces of Chahaer, Suiyuan, Hebei, and Shanxi and demanded the separation of North China from South.
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Chinese Reactions
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Anti-foreign feel was strong in China since the 19th century. Long standing hatred was now directed at Japanese. - Chinese organized boycott of Japanese goods. - Many wanted Chiang to declare war, but he didn't agree - national unity must be achieved before attacking (killing Communists). - Communists wanted to fight Japanese (were in good position to).
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Japan-China War, 1937-45
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July 1937, Japanese troops provoked local Chinese troops into a fight on the Marco Polo bridge outside Beijing. - 3-month siege, with heavy aerial bomber, they captured Shanghai, China's most important port in November 1937. - By the start of 1938, 1 million Japanese troops were in China - with control of all main cities, lines of communication in provinces around mouth of Yangzi River - important fertile land. - 5 years, they didn't occupy more - tiny country doesn't have enough power to control all of China, even the places they did occupy aren't completely controlled. - In the south, Japanese attempted to ruin Chiang's government.
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Communists at War
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from 1937-40, Communist fighters moved eastwards from their base at Yanan and took control of north China. -in 1940, they began offensive attacking Japanese railway communications. - to deal with the threat, Japanese planned in 1941 to kill all, burn all and destroy all (turning people against the Communists - it only made peasants hate Japanese more). - in 1945, Communists were able to advance and they controlled 18 'liberation areas' most in countryside
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Life in GMD China
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Chiang governed like military dictator, with aims to modernize country, 'New Life' program but didn't deal with basic welfare problems - lack of medical care, poor housing... - another movement was the Rural Service - sending students into the country to help peasants harvest their crops (he did nothing to reduce land taxes...) - nor able to prevent the 1932-4 famine, killing more than 3 million people. - Chiang and the GMD never gained peasant support.
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Life in the Liberation Areas
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Big estates confiscated from rich landlords, and shared among peasants -additional help was given: training, tools, interest-free loans, social reforms. - in Yana, people lived in equality, all live without luxuries. - Red Army used propaganda to spread communist ideas.
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The Final Struggle, 1945-9 - Disunity
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In 1938 armed clashes took place between GMD and Communists near Beijing. - In 1941, GMD forces attacked the Communist New 4th Army, killing and capturing 10,000 of them. - Throughout the war Chiang used his old tactics of encirclement to surround the Yanan Soviet in yet another extermination campaign - pushing the communists into an ever-smaller area. - So while the communists were expanding into Northern and Central china by creating 'liberation areas', they were on defence. - At the end of the war, 1945, the communists and GMD raced for control of areas that Japan had occupied - Communists were in better position to win, having 18 liberation areas in the north already.
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The Civil War, 1946-9
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As two sided prepared, everybody thought GMD would win - they had strong cities, US help, weapons, railway communications. - In comparison, Communists were weak - only countryside support, few railways, no air force... - Started again in June 1946 when a million GMD troops launched offense in N. China -- By march 1947, they had won series of battles and capture Yanan (communist capital) -However, Red Army (People's Liberation Army) in 1946, fought back with skill - led by Lin Biao - avoiding major battles, concentrating on guerrilla warfare. - PLA took much of central and northern China during 1947 and forced GMD on defensive. - thousands now flocked to join the Communists.
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Problems caused by the Civil War
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Civilians in the GMD cities suffered - rapid inflation, strikes, robbery, public order collapse, riots. - blue shirts tried to use harsher methods... - but the party was collapsing, Chiang admitted in 1947 that the party had become corrupt/disunited. - US government stopped aid in 1947, since 1945 they had given 200 million $ and no win.
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Communist Victory
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By 1948, the PLA was large enough to abandon guerrilla tactics and to fight the GMD head-on. - In November 1948, they attacked, GMD losing more than 500,000 men and huge amounts of equipment. - allowing the PLA to move freely in central China, capturing Beijing in April, Shanghai in May - On 1st October 1949 the Communists announced the existence of the People's Republic of China. - Taiwan wasn't under Communist control; for Chiang retreated there after realising he had lost the civil war - taking with him 200,000 GMD troops as well as China's gold reserves. - From then until his death in 1975, Chiang ruled Taiwan as the 'Republic of China'.
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The Communist state - Intentions
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On 29th September 1949, the Conference drew up a Common Program outlining the party's aims and intentions - the government would be a democracy, but people who opposed the Communists were classed as reactionaries.
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Problems facing Communists
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Agricultural output had dropped; 3 years of civil war destroyed fields, dams, canals.. - chaos in transport, telecommunications and energy systems because of civil war. - inflation, high level of unemployment - local government was slow due to Chiang's corruptness - 200,000 troop threat from Chiang in Taiwan. - MAIN PROBLEM = creating a united China
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The government of Communist China
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First action to reorganize the government of China. - party members have to obey strict discipline and give total obedience to leaders. - the PLA had an important role to play in a new system of government. - Troops were used to tackle urgent problems - rebuilding railways, bridges, ports.
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Years of Great Change, 1950-3 - Rights of Women
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In April 1950, the new government introduced marriage law - Ending arranged marriages, child marriages, killing of unwanted female babies and bigamy. - Minimum age was made 20 for men and 18 for women - Divorce was allowed, if both consenting. - In 1951 February, gave mothers maternity benefit of full wages after the birth of the child.
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Years of Great Change, 1950-3 - Land Reform
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On 30 June 1950, an Agrarian reform law speeded up the process of land reform. - Communists went into countryside to teach peasants how to work out the social class - Peasants then talked about their poverty at 'speak bitterness' - However between 1950 and 1952, 47 million hectares (40% of all cultivated land) was taken away from landlords and rich peasants and given to around 300 million peasants. - 'speak bitterness' became more bitter and violent - ending with landlord executions, around 2-4 million landlords killed. - The reform law didn't live up to expectations - they had no equipment to cultivate land received. - Many joined mutual aid teams which worked together on the land, sharing.
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The Economy
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Major banks, the railway network, and a third of heavy industry were nationalised. - The profits were paid into the State treasury, giving 2/3 of yearly's income of government. - A people's bank was opened in 1951 to replace private banks. - it was able to get rid of inflation entirely by mid 50s. - To overcome the threat of food shortages, farmers had to sell 15-20% of grain to the government, and also had to pay an agricultural tax.
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Organisation of the People
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During 1950-1 the party organised mass rallies where public enemies and counterrevolutionaries were publicly tried. - In 1951 'thought reform' was started - involving close study of his writings combined with public self-criticism at Party meetings. - Mass campaigns were set up to concentrate attention of specific problems. - In 1952, the 'Five Antis Campaign' aimed to get rid of bribery, tax evasion, fraud, theft of government property and spying. - Every sector of the population was encouraged to join party-run interest groups - These groups were easy to control and easy to use for its own purposes - mass rallies in Beijing's Tiananmen Square.
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Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance
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One of Mao's first actions after taking power was to ask the USSR for financial help. - In December 1949, he travelled to Moscow to talk with Stalin - 1 result - 'Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance" which gave China financial and technical aid.
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The First Five-Year Plan
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It ran from 1953-7 and gave priority to heavy industry: steel, coal and machinery (700 new production plants in central China and Manchuria) - China' light industry was rejected (cotton, food) so people had little growth in living standards and in availability of goods. - all heavy industry results surpassed planned outcome. - coal in 1952 was 63.5 million and in 1957 was planned to be 113 but was actually 124. - increased number of city workers = more mouths to feed. - and thus planned to increase the output of food from farms, by turning them into cooperatives.
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The Cooperative Farms
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lower stage cooperatives - meaning 30-50 families (from 1 village) pooled their land/labour together to make one bigger more efficient farm. higher stage cooperatives - 200-300 families (groups of villages). - lower stage cooperatives weren't paid rent for their land, they received only wages for their labour; had to surrender title and deeds to their land, equipment and animals. - by the end of 1956, 95/100 peasant families had joined higher stage cooperatives - most of the 300 million peasants who had received land in 1950 were landless again.
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The Hundred Flowers
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Communists were losing popularity as city population rose, caused overcrowding, food shortages, housing problems and peasants hated 'higher-stage cooperatives'. - Mao in 1956 allowed people to let off steam by saying what they wanted about the communists - free speech and arguments were healthy. - for a while, Chinese said what they liked - but often they spoke too freely. - For a while, Chinese said what they liked - but often they spoke too freely and in June 1957, Mao cracked down on his critics - arresting and sending them off to camps for thought reform. "The hundred flowers withered as rapidly as they bloomed."
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The Great Leap Forward, 1958
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Summer of 1958, Mao toured the countryside, planning to make China into one of the world's leading industrial nations, while improving agriculture. - which would be done in a 'Second Five-Year plan' from 1958-63. - intending for Chinese economy to surpass the British within 15 years and that of American in 20-30.
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The Great Leap Forward - Communes
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It aimed to develop agriculture as well as heavy and light industry - key was to organise Chinese people into Communes (which were groups of villages which vary in size, containing about 5000 families who gave up their land, animals, equipment to common ownership by everyone of the commune. - purpose - release the 'tremendous energy of the masses' by making sure that time/effort weren't wasted. - all distractions were removed: 4 million communal eating halls were set up so time spent cooking was reduced; millions of children were put into nurseries/schools so both parents could work; old and infirm people were put into homes. - Communes controlled everything: government, school, clinics, eating halls, entertainment, work organization - by the end of 1958 about 700 million people (90% of population) had been placed in to 26,000+ communes.
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The Great Leap Forward - Propaganda
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Posters, slogans and newspaper articles urged the Chinese to work long hours despite weather or conditions. - revolutionary music/stirring speeches would be playing through the loudspeaker at all times, during work.
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The Great Leap Forward - The Backyard Steel Campaign
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Small commune factories were set up to make industrial products like cement, ball bearings and chemical fertilizer. - emphasis on steel, so 600,000 backyard steel furnaces were set up in towns/villages - they soon turned out 11 million tons of steel - 65% more than the total for 1957. - in 1958, the figures for production of steel, coal, timber, cement, fertilizer and others showed a great rise. - record harvests for cotton and grain.
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'Three Bitter Years': The Crisis of 1959-1961
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Only months after the launch of the Great Leap Forward, things began to go wrong - everywhere workers were urges to produce more and more. - thus, old/overworked machines fell apart under the strain - factory workers fell asleep at their benches and suffered accidents because of exhaustion. - the Backyard Steel campaign failed also: 3/11 million tons of steel was too impure for industrial use and had to be thrown away. - there were so many furnaces that 1/10 person was employed in steel - taking them away from farms, reducing the amount of food that could be grown. - furnaces used much of the coal supplies that locomotives had no fuel to run on - also too much steel and not enough trains. - Mao admitted in 1959 that Leap Forward had failed.
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'Three Bitter Years' - Farming Crisis
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Weather wasn't too bad, but too few people working the harvest. - also party officials ignored this fact and said that grain harvest had been a record 260 million tons which caused the eating halls to give extra: using up food stocks. - the 1959 weather was really bad - flood and drought: a harvest of only 170 million tons. - the 1960 weather even worse: harvest amount 144 million tons - leading to major famine, killing 9 million in 1960 alone. - Between 1959-1962, 20 million Chinese died of starvation and related diseases.
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The Rise of the Moderates
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Some party members blamed Mao personally for the famine and demanded his resignation. - but he was too popular with the masses so party leaders persuaded him to give up post of Head of State to Liu Shaoqi (moderate), leaving him party Chairman. - late in 1960, they abandoned the Great Leap Forward - Communes were reduced in size to make them more manageable - Peasants working in steel were sent back to fields - peasants were allowed to own private plots and to seek part of their harvest at the market - Town workers' wages increased However Mao continued to have control of the masses - he used this influence in 1966 to get rid of the moderates by starting a 'Cultural revolution'.
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The Cultural Revolution, 1966-9
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From 1962-6 leaders of the Communist party argued about path for China: - Moderates = more incentives to get peasants to work harder e.g. peasants have larger private plots of land and pay them according to how much they worked. e.g going back to the first Five year plan to build up industry on Russian lines (create a new class of skilled workers) - Mao said that was the 'capitalist road'. in 1962 he launched a 'Socialist Education Movement' to get people back on Communist track. He launched a '4 clean-ups campaign' to get rid of corruption/bad management and to discourage capitalist behavior in people - e.g. spending more on private plots than on communal lands.
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Support for Mao
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From 1962-6, Mao urged the Party to keep in touch with the ordinary people - In 1965 he gained powerful support from Lin Biao (minister of Defence). - In that year, Lin Biao had all ranks of the People's Liberation Army, making all soldiers equal: although nobody in government supported Mao, he now had support of the 4 million strong PLA. - Mao was now strong enough to begin his campaign in 1966 called 'The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution'.
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Red Guards
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Revolution began amongst schoolchildren and students in Beijing. In the summer of 1966 students formed into military groups calling them the Red Guards. - Their first aim was to get rid of all capitalist and bourgeois influences in schools and colleges. - The Red Guards began with a 'Four Olds' campaign against old ideas, culture, customs and habits - using violence to achieve their aims. - They were shaving the heads of girls who had western hairstyles, ripping western-style clothes, smashing windows of shops selling cosmetics, pets, jazz-records, chess sets, fur coats and many other things. - They renamed places, which had 'reactionary' names - Beijing became 'The East is Red'. - Mao encouraged this, given help from the PLA and the police were told not to oppose them. - By 1967 law and order had broken down - much of the country was in a state of civil war. - around 400,000 people were killed, countless thousands more beaten up, humiliated, tortured and imprisoned.
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The Cult of Mao Zedong
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Much time of the Red Guards was spent reading and memorising the Little Red Book, 740 million copies of which were printed between 1966 and 1969. - pictures/statues of Mao were set up in every street - to which many people bowed in the morning and at night. - leading moderates were expelled and Lui Shaoqi was imprisoned and died in captivity in 1969. - in September 1967 Mao attempted restore order to China - the PLA stepped into stop the Red Guards when using violence. Mao encouraged the students to go down the countryside and be re-educated by the peasants (some 18 million young people went down to the country) - Revolutionary committees were created by the PLA made up of peasants, soldiers, and the Red Guards where order had broken down. - by 1969 order was back.
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Cost of the Cultural Revolution
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Cost to china had been high: - young people had missed so much education that by 1981, the government estimated that around 120 million people under 45 could not read/write. - Industrial output fell drastically - Farming was severely disrupted. "For the second time in ten years, China had suffered 'Chaos on a grand scale' under Mao Zedong's leadership."
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Edgar Snow (Historiography)
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1938 Red Star over China by an american journalist. He was one of the first foreign journalists to travel to Yanan and interview survivors of the Long March. Much of what he published was vetted by Mao and Zhou Enlai and his descriptions were seen as 'idealistic and romantic' and created a "cultural myth of what the Communists were like".
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Western, Liberal sympathetic views
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Snow influenced a whole generation of China watchers and historians - many felt that Maoism was the best way for China. Including Harold Isaacs, Agnes Smedley...
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Pro-GMD and later Cold War Attitudes
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1930s and WW2, the US supported the GMD and Chiang was seen as the leader of China - Henry Luce of Time/Life published favorable articles about him in 1930s. They lost support of the majority of the Chinese people though: Patrick Hurley said in 1944 that the Communists were "the only read democrats in China."
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Revisionist historians since the 1980s
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Scar literature and the Tiananmen square massacre of 1989 made many historians change their views. Former Western, liberal sympathetic historians such as Meisner and Fairbank had revised their views. IN 2005, Jung Chang and Jon Halliday published the book: Mao the Unknown Story and seemed to be "fueled by an unrelenting hatred of Mao and a determination to pile up evidence to blacken him as selfish and sadistic."
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Great Leap Forward (Historiography)
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China's People's Daily Newspaper (1958) "today, in the era of Mao Zedong, Heaven is here on Earth."
