Public Policy Notes Unit 1 – Flashcards

In this Animated Learning Module, you will learn about domestic policy and the policy-making process. A policy is an effort to accomplish a particular goal. The goal of domestic policy is to achieve a desirable outcome depending on the issue. The fact that it is domestic means it pertains to the homeland of the United States. For example, if crime rates are high, the policy would attempt to reduce crime rates.

A policy has to be originated and developed. This is called the Policy-Making Process and it consists of five steps or stages. The first step is identifying a problem, which puts it on the agenda. This is called agenda building. Because numerous problems exist, their solutions are impossible until they are identified by policymakers. Typically, this occurs through public debate. Policymakers also rely on their constituents, interest groups, and the media to bring policy problems to their attention. Ultimately, the identification of a problem, the reaction to the problem, and the solution all form the policy process. This may come about through crisis, through the lobbying efforts of interest groups, or through others concerned about the problem. The second step is policy formulation. This consists of the debate that occurs among government officials and the public in the media, in Congress, and through campaigns. The third step is policy adoption. This is the selection of a strategy for addressing the problem from the solutions discussed. The fourth step is policy implementation. This is the administration of the policy adopted by bureaucrats, the courts, and others. The final step is policy evaluation. Groups evaluate the policy to determine if it has had the desired impact. The feedback evaluates unintended consequences of the policy adoption. The feedback is also considered part of the agenda building and formulation process.

The first is health care. Health care can mean different things to different people; however, the one concern everyone seems to have is cost and how to pay for it. Government spending on healthcare has gone up significantly over time. Compared to other advanced industrial countries, our spending as a percentage of the Gross Domestic Product is exceptionally high; double the rate of some countries. Why is that the case? Let's take a look. The rising cost of health care can be attributed to our aging population. If we are living longer, we need more care and that care is often more expensive. Advanced technology helps physicians and hospitals prolong human life. This ongoing process, of developing new technology, contributes to the cost because advanced diagnostic machinery is very expensive. The government funds about 45% of health care spending, private insurance provides about 35%, and individuals and charities fund the rest. This creates inflation because it removes much of the market mechanism that keeps prices low when there is competition. Medicare and Medicaid are examples of government spending on health care. Medicare is a federal health insurance program that covers US residents over the age of 65. The costs are met by a tax on wages and salaries. When created in 1965, Medicare did not cover medicine. Beginning in 2006, the Medicare program began paying partial medicine costs. Medicare is the second most expensive federal program after Social Security. To contain costs, the government has placed caps on payments for procedures, with mixed results. Some health care providers will not serve Medicare clients now. Medicaid is a joint state and federal program that provides medical care to the poor, including indigent elderly persons in nursing homes. The program is funded out of general government revenues. Medicaid spending has exploded in part because the income ceiling for Medicaid eligibility has increased, making it a more attractive option for low-income workers than the health insurance offered by their employers. While the federal government pays almost 60% of Medicaid's costs, the portion paid by the states has increased rapidly. The uninsured also contribute to cost. 15% of the population lack health insurance, and 35% of working Hispanic Americans lack coverage. The uninsured employed often work for small businesses, who find it hard to supply health insurance to their employees, since it costs $9,000 or more per employee. Many working uninsured are young and healthy, although a health catastrophe for such a person could force the business into bankruptcy. Finally, a special problem of shifting costs occurs with the uninsured because many health care providers charge the uninsured higher rates for services than the insured. This occurs because insurance companies and the government have the power to negotiate lower prices for their clients. Congress recently enacted the National Health Care Reform, which will change the system as we know it. The United States is the only advanced industrial country that does not have a system of universal health insurance run by the government. Such systems have lower administrative expenses than the US system, but may have trouble controlling spending on unnecessary procedures.

Our next area of concern deals with pollution, which has made environmental policy an important part of domestic policy. A major source of concern for the general public has been the emission of pollutants into the air and water. Early in the 20th century, environmentalism focused on wilderness and land use issues. Conservation was a policy under which natural resources were used, but not abused. In contrast, preservation called for natural preserves that were isolated from the effects of human activity. Beginning in the 1960's, a new movement arose that was more focused on pollution. A series of well-publicized pollution catastrophes helped bring attention to the problem. Ecology became a concern in the 1970's as some environmentalists began to advocate policies that were a radical elaboration of the old preservationist philosophy. Many even claimed that the human race itself was the problem. The public had a growing awareness of environmental problems throughout the 1970's and 1980's. Major environmental problems, like oil spills and toxic waste sites, led the government to formulate a long-term policy aimed at protecting the environment without causing major damage to the economy. The following polices reflect the government's recognition of the need to protect the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 attempted to set national standards by assessing the impact on the environment of major federal projects, such as road construction and buildings. Such projects could not be started without first receiving an environmental impact statement. In 1990, amendments were added to the Clean Air Act of 1963, which constituted a comprehensive policy mandating cleaner air in urban areas. Utility plant emission levels were monitored, in which the plants worked to significantly reduce their amount of carbon monoxide emissions. Automobile manufacturers were required to reduce emissions of nitrogen oxide progressively until 2007. The Clean Water Act of 1972 amended the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948. The Clean Water Act sought to make waters safe for swimming, to protect fish and wildlife, and to eliminate the discharge of pollutants into the water. The Clean Water Act is controversial because of its broad definition of wetlands and its migratory bird rule. Wetlands are subject to prohibitions on filling and dredging. The migratory bird rule applies to any waters suitable for use by migratory birds. It is subject to regulations similar to that of the wetlands. Critics of our environmental policy contend that these restrictions cost jobs and negatively affect the economy. There are substantial costs involved in these policies. One method of supporting cost-effective solutions was part of the Clean Air Act of 1990. The act capped overall national sulfur dioxide emissions, but also permitted free trade in rights to emit sulfur dioxide. As a result, the sulfur dioxide emissions were made by the companies reaping the greatest economic advantage from their right to emit. Air and water pollution is down dramatically from what it was in the past. Lead content in the air is 3% lower than its original levels. Sulfur dioxide is down by 4/5ths. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 made it illegal to kill or harm a species listed as endangered or threatened. The government prevented landowners from engaging in development that would harm a listed species. Restrictions on development and on property rights in general have made the Endangered Species Act controversial.

Energy policy is concerned with how much energy is needed and used and with the regulation of energy producers. This becomes important during a crisis. The US has always had enormous energy resources; however, the American economy depends almost entirely on fossil fuels, such as oil, coal, and natural gas, most of which are imported. Because of the effects of producing and consuming energy, energy policy is deeply entangled with environmental policy. A series of laws passed over the last 20 years has forced cities to reduce smog and to require cleaner burning gasoline. Congress has also mandated that 10% of fuels sold in the years to come include ethanol as an ingredient. As the cost of energy rises, however, the debate intensifies over domestic power production, such as offshore drilling and electric power generated by coal-fired plants. Nuclear power has been an unpopular solution. Nuclear power plants are very efficient and emit low levels of greenhouse gases. However, accidents that occurred more than 20 years ago have almost destroyed any support for nuclear power in the US. Not only do people fear the possibility of an accident at such a plant, but nuclear plants also provide a superb target for terrorist attacks. Finally, nuclear plants produce spent fuel that must be stored until it is safe. A number of alternative sources of energy can be used to reduce the nation's dependence on fossil fuels. Wind farms generate energy for cities, and research continues on harnessing the power of ocean waves and geothermal energy. However, the technology does not yet exist to use any of these sources to produce the quantity of energy needed to replace coal plants or other current energy sources. Rising gas prices have spurred a much greater demand for hybrid and other more fuel-efficient cars, encouraging people to ride motor scooters for city commutes, and increasing the use of mass transit.

Poverty and welfare relate to income transfers, and transfers of income relate to individuals in the economy. The low-income population is considered to be in poverty because of a government devised system beginning in 1963, which based poverty on family income in comparison to the cost of a nutritious food plan. All families whose income level was not at least three times larger than the food plan were classified as below the poverty line. Since 1969, the government has revised the formula based on changes in the consumer price index. The government makes transfer payments to them in the form of programs like food stamps and housing vouchers. The 2009 budget allocated about 1/4 of all federal expenditures to programs that supported persons of limited income. More than 1/4 of this amount was for Medicaid. The Welfare Reform Act of 1996 created Temporary Assistance to Needy Families, also known as, TANF. TANF is a state-administered block grant program. The states, not the national government, now bear the burden of any increased welfare spending. The Welfare Reform Act of 1996 had several key components. A key provision called for devolution of the welfare system. Most welfare recipients are now limited to two years of assistance at one time, with a lifetime limit of five years. The act sought to reduce the number of people receiving benefits, in fact, the number has been cut about in half. Basic welfare is often criticized on several grounds. Some believe it reduces the incentive to find work. Others say it is anti-marriage because it makes it easier for unmarried mothers to get by. Supplemental Security Income was established as part of Social Security in 1974 to provide a minimum income for the aged, the blind, and the disabled. Food Stamps were designed to help provide adequate nutrition for low-income families. The program began as a twofold mission to help farmers sell surplus products and to eliminate malnutrition. The Earned Income Tax Credit helps lower-income workers by providing a rebate on Social Security taxes. Although each of these policies attempts to benefit the poor, there are many homeless individuals and families in America. Homelessness has always been a problem and continues to be an important one. Estimates are that on any given night there are anywhere from 200,030-700,050 people who are homeless. The fastest growing sub-group of the homeless are families

Immigration is another controversial and salient issue. Immigration has shaped American society from the very beginning; however, one of the questions facing the country today is the effect of immigration on the present and future society. Will immigration have a positive or negative impact on the US? Immigration rates are now higher since their peak in the early 20thcentury. About a million people immigrate to this country each year. Immigrants expand the workforce and drive wages lower, and many illegal immigrants use services such as emergency rooms and public education, which drive up costs. In 2006, the controversy over illegal immigration reached a boiling point as some argued that jobs were being lost, wages were being depressed, and services were stretched to the breaking point. In response, hundreds of thousands took to the streets protesting in favor of immigrants and their rights. Congress split over the issue, with some members favoring amnesty for illegal immigrants, some favoring a plan for the gradual awarding of citizenship, and others wanting to send illegal immigrants back to their home countries. Congress authorized the construction of a 700 mile fence between the US and Mexico. There would be a physical fence in some areas and a virtual fence in other areas, using cameras and surveillance technologies. Some states and cities have enacted laws making it illegal for undocumented residents to access public services or to get drivers' licenses.

Finally, we consider crime. In 2006, overall crime rates in the US dropped below those in many other countries, such as Britain. Nonetheless, virtually all polls taken in the US in the last 10 years have shown that crime remains a major concern. Crime has always been considered a problem in American society. After rising for many years, violent crime rates have come down over the last 10 years. One explanation might be the large number of perpetrators who have been sent to prison. Increased spending on law enforcement has also been suggested as a reason. One study even claimed that legalized abortion has had a major effect in reducing the population likely to commit crimes. Juvenile crime rates are dropping as well. Curfews and boot camps are two solutions that have been advanced. Increasingly, young offenders are being tried as adults, especially for violent offenses. School shootings occur not only in secondary schools but also in elementary schools and on college campuses. The perception of school shootings as a growing form of violence has been reinforced by the media, even when homicide rates in schools declined from 1993 to 2002. However, students continue to face less risk of serious violent crimes while at school than outside of school. Stiff sentences are now national policy. By 2008, the number of persons held in jail or prison exceeded 2.3 million. Why has the prison population grown so much when the crime rate has been declining in the last decade? Many states and localities have increased the list of crimes for which a criminal may receive a mandatory sentence. Also, many individuals who are in prison were convicted of drug offenses, which carry automatic sentences for a specified length of time. We refer to the number of persons held in jail or prison for every 100,000 persons in a particular population group the incarceration rate. Today, the rate for US men is 1,309 and for US women, 113. Among the most frequently incarcerated demographic group are non-Hispanic black men aged 25 to 29. Their rate is a stratospheric 11,955. The US has more people in jail or prison than any other country in the world, and the US has the highest reported incarceration rate of any country on earth, which is not surprising since it also has one of the world's largest total populations. Imprisonment keeps violent felons from committing additional crimes. The majority of all persons arrested each year are arrested for drug offenses. 20-40 million people may violate the drug laws each year, so the supply of potential prisoners seems virtually limitless. One of the major causes of crime in the US is the use and sale of illegal drugs. Illegal drug sales can result in violence because of turf wars between rival drug gangs. Dealers operate outside the justice system and therefore resort to violence to settle disputes, and drug users may resort to crime to finance their drugs. State and local governments have been attempting new remedies to curtail the drug problem. One strategy includes sentencing drug offenders to rehabilitation, rather than prison. Probably the most devastating type of crime is terrorism because of its potential to inflict violence on thousands of victims. After the attacks of September 11th, the federal government enacted many policies in an effort to combat terrorism. Some policies enjoyed widespread public support; others did not. What seems clear, however, is that counter-terrorism strategies will necessarily be a part of federal government policy for years to come.