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learning

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is a relatively enduring or permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from previous experience with certain stimuli and responses.

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behavior

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includes any observable response (fainting, salivating, vomiting).

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classical conditioning

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is a kind of learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a response that was originally produced by a different stimulus.

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law of effect

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if some random actions are followed by a pleasurable consequence or reward, such actions are strengthened and will likely occur in the future.

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operant conditioning

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is a kind of learning in which the consequences that follow some behavior increase or decrease the likelihood of that behavior's occurrence in the future.

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cognitive learning

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kind of learning that involves mental processes, such as attention and memory; may be learned through observation or imitation; and may not involve any external rewards or require the person to perform any observable behaviors.

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neutral stimulus (NS)

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some stimulus that causes a sensory response, such as being seen, heard, or smelled, but does not produce the reflex being tested.

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unconditioned stimulus

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some stimulus that triggers or elicits a physiological reflex, such as salivation or eye blink.

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unconditioned response

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an unlearned, innate, involuntary physiological reflex that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.

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conditioned stimulus

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formerly neutral stimulus that has acquired the ability to elicit a response that was previously elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.

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conditioned response

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which is elicited by the conditioned stimulus, is similar to, but not identical in size or amount to, the unconditioned response.

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Acquisition

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is the initial process of forming new responses through the repeated pairing of the NS and the UCS.

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generalization

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tendency for a stimulus that is similar to the original condi-tioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response. Usu-ally, the more similar the new stimulus is to the original conditioned stimulus, the larger will be the conditioned response.

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discrimination

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occurs during classical conditioning when an organism learns to make a particular response to some stimuli but not to others.

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extinction

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procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus and, as a result, the conditioned stimulus tends to no longer elicit the conditioned response.

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spontaneous recovery

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tendency for the conditioned response to reappear after being extinguished even though there have been no further conditioning trials.

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adaptive value

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refers to the usefulness of certain abilities or traits that have evolved in animals and humans and tend to increase their chances of survival, such as finding food, acquiring mates, and avoiding pain and injury.

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taste-aversion learning

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associating a particular sensory cue (smell, taste, sound, or sight) with getting sick and thereafter avoiding that particular sensory cue in the future.

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preparedness

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phenomenon in which animals and humans are biologically prepared to associate some combinations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli more easily than others.

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conditioned emotional response

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feeling some positive or negative emotion, such as happiness, fear, or anxiety, when experiencing a stimulus that initially accompanied a pleasant or painful event.

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stimulus substitute

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means that a neural bond or association forms in the brain between the neutral stimulus (tone) and the unconditioned stimulus (food).

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cognitive perspective

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classical conditioning occurs because the organism learns what to expect.

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cognitive theory

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classical conditioning occurs because two stimuli (neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus) are paired close together in time (are contiguous). As a result of this contiguous pairing, the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, which elicits the

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prejudice

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unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude toward another group of people.

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anticipatory nausea

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is feelings of nau-sea that are elicited by stimuli associated with nausea-inducing chemotherapy treatments. Patients experi-ence nausea after treatment but also before or in anticipation of their treatment. Researchers believe that conditioned nausea occurs through classical conditioning.

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systematic desenitzatoin

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procedure based on classical conditioning, in which a person imagines or visualizes fearful or anxiety- evoking stimuli and then immediately uses deep relaxation to overcome the anxiety.

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operant conditioning

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instrumental conditioning, is a kind of learning in which an animal or human performs some behavior, and the following consequence (reward or punishment) increases or decreases the chance that an animal or human will again perform that same behavior.

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operant response

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response that can be modified by its consequences and is a meaningful unit of ongoing behavior that can be easily measured.

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law of effect

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behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened, while behaviors fol-lowed by negative consequences are weakened.

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skinner box

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small enclosure that is automated to record an animal's bar presses and deliver food pellets as a consequence.

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superstitious behavior

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behavior that increases in frequency because its occurrence is accidentally paired with the delivery of a reinforcer.

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shaping

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procedure in which an experimenter successively reinforces behaviors that lead up to or approximate the desired behavior.

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reinforcement

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consequence that occurs after a behavior and increases the chance that the behavior will occur again.

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punishment

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consequence that occurs after a behavior and decreases the chance that the behavior will occur again.

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Pica

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behavioral disorder, often seen in individuals with intellectual impairment, that involves eating inedible objects or unhealthy substances. This can result in serious physical problems, including lead poisoning, intestinal blockage, and parasites.

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positive reinforcement

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presentation of a stimulus that increases the probability that a behavior will occur again.

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negative reinforcement

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aversive (unpleasant) stimulus whose removal increases the likelihood that the preceding response will occur again.

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reinforcer

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stimulus that increases the likelihood that the response preceding it will occur again.

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primary reinforcer

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stim-ulus, such as food, water, or sex, that is innately satisfying and requires no learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable.

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positive punishment

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refers to presenting an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus after a response. The aversive stimulus decreases the chances that the response will recur.

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secondary reinforcer

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any stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power through experience; secondary reinforcers are learned, such as by being paired with primary reinforcers or other secondary reinforcers.

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noncompliance

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refers to a child refusing to follow directions, carry out a request, or obey a command given by a parent or caregiver.

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time-out

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removes reinforcing stimuli after an undesirable response. This removal decreases the chances that the undesired response will recur.

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negative punishment

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refers to removing a rein-forcing stimulus (such as a child's allowance) after a response. This removal decreases the chances that the response will recur.

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schedule of reinforcement

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program or rule that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by a reinforcer.

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cumulative record

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continuous written record that shows an animal's or a human's individual responses and reinforcements.

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continuous reinforcement

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means that every occurrence of the operant response results in delivery of the reinforcer.

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partial reinforcement

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refers to a situation in which responding is reinforced only some of the time.

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fixed ratio schedule

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that a rein-forcer occurs only after a fixed number of responses are made by the participant.

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fixed interval schedule

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means that a reinforcer occurs following the first response that occurs after a fixed interval of time.

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variable ratio schedule

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means that a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of correct responses has occurred.

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variable interval schedule

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means that a reinforcer occurs following the first correct response after an average amount of time

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discrimination (operant)

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In operant conditioning means that a response is emitted in the presence of a stimulus that is reinforced and not in the presence of unreinforced stimuli.

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discrimination (classical)

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is the tendency for some stimuli but not others to elicit a conditioned response. Copyright | CENGAGE Learning | Introduction to Psychology | [email protected] | Printed from www.chegg.com

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cognitive learning

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learning, which involves mental processes such as attention and memory, says that learning can occur through obser-vation or imitation and such learning may not involve any external rewards or require a person to perform any observable behaviors.

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cognitive map

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mental representation in the brain of the layout of an environment and its features. Copyright | CENGAGE Learning | Introduction to Psychology | [email protected] | Printed from www.chegg.com

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social cognitive learning

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results from watching, imitating, and modeling and does not require the observer to perform any observable behavior or receive any observable reward.

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latent learning

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learning that is not demonstrated in behavior until its application becomes useful.

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learning performance procedure

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that learning may occur but may not always be measured by, or immediately evident in, performance.

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social cognitive theory

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emphasizes the importance of observation, imitation, and self-reward in the develop-ment and learning of social skills, personal interactions, and many other behaviors. Unlike operant and classical

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insight

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a mental process marked by the sudden and unexpected solution to a problem: a phenomenon often called the "aha!"

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ethologists

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are behavioral biologists who observe and study animal behavior in the animal's natural environment or under relatively naturalistic conditions.

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critical/sensitive period

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relatively brief time during which learning is most likely to occur.

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imprinting

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inherited tendencies or responses that are displayed by newborn animals when they encounter certain stimuli in their environment.

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autism

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condition marked by poor development in social relationships, such as not wanting to be touched, not making eye contact, and hiding to avoid people

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behavioral modification

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treatment or therapy that changes or modifies problems or undesirable behaviors by using principles of learning based on operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and social cognitive learning.

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contingency management

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the systematic reinforcement of desired behaviors and the withholding of reinforcement or punishment of undesired behaviors.

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