Gender – Flashcard

socially significant activities that men and women engage in with different frequencies

-Devised by Sigmund Freud -Emphasized the differences between personality development and functioning of men and women -Casts women as inferior to men -Theorized existence of the unconscious -Instincts: dynamic forces underlying thought and action

arose in the late 1800s as a way to explain personality development and also as a way to provide treatment to people with mental problems. The theory gained and then lost popularity but remains a provocative and controversial approach to personality. The basic concepts include the notion that an unconscious region of the mind exists beyond conscious awareness and that instincts furnish the energy for personality functioning. Freud's View of Gender Identity Development begins with the passage through a series of psychosexual states or stages Oral Anal Phallic Latent Genital

Boys: -Oedipus complex: Attraction to their mother Hostility for their father -Castration complex: Boys fear their father will remove their penises Leads to identification with the father Girls: Penis envy Girls believe that they have already been castrated and feel inferior due to their lack of a penis. To resolve the Oedipus complex, both boys and girls must stop pursuing their other-gender parent and identify with the same-gender parent.

Freud's theory was uncomplimentary and biased against women Viewed women as "failed men" Freud was accused of sexism by his female colleagues, but he never changed his theory to a more positive view of women.

Horney replaced the biological emphasis with a social one. She reformulated the masculine bias in Freud's theory, eliminating the concept of penis envy and postulating that men's assertion of women's inferiority exists to keep men from contending with their own feelings of inferiority. Horney rejected women's masochism as normal and contended that society's role for women is the source of many of women's problems. -New interpretation of feminine masochism -Argued against male bias in psychoanalytic theory -Replaced penis envy with womb envy -Men see women as inferior to keep them from dealing with their own feelings of inferiority

Include attempts to remove the sexist elements from traditional psychoanalytic theory as well as to reformulate psychoanalytic concepts -Nancy Chodorow -Ellyn Kaschak

Mothering replaces the Freudian emphasis on the trauma of the Oedipal conflict with a concentration on the pre-Oedipal period, concentrating on how the mother-infant relationship is key to personality development Chodorow hypothesized that boys and girls have different experiences in separating themselves from their mother, with boys having to strive for separation and girls neither striving for nor attaining the same level of separation. Boys' and girls' experiences differ -Separating themselves from their mother -Boys having to strive for separation -Girls neither striving for nor attaining the same level of separation

replaces the Oedipus analogy with the female analogy of Antigone, Oedipus's faithful daughter. Kaschak took this character as a symbol of female development in a patriarchal family. Men who do not overcome the Oedipus phase of development treat women as extensions of themselves and their needs, and women who fail to overcome the Antigone phase fit into these subservient patterns, never acknowledging their own needs. Psychodynamic...BUT Social Role embodied? Oedipus symbolizes power and entitlement Antigone symbolizes women's self-sacrifice MEN's rights -Historically perpetuated by society

Social power & status -Proprietary over women -Women: subservient Patriarchal terrorism -Control, major goal Sexually self-centered

Nonpatriarchal Power: not major issue Women: independent Sexually unselfish

Accept subservience -Passive, dependent Accept male-defined sexuality Deny own needs -Few female friendships

Based on the concepts of operant conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment, social learning theory adds observational learning, modeling, and imitation to explain learning as a cognitive phenomenon. Bandura hypothesized that children observe many gender-related behaviors from a wide variety of models and come to exhibit appropriate gender-related behaviors as a result of their observation and modeling. Classifies gender development as learned behaviors Variation of traditional learning theory: -Operant conditioning: Reinforcement/punishment -Observation of others (modeling): Positive and negative consequences

Social learning theory -criticized as too passive -Evidence suggests that children actively organize information about their gender -Emphasis on cognition: -Cognitive Developmental Theory -Gender Schema Theory

views the acquisition of gender-related behaviors as part of children's general cognitive development, with its roots in Piaget's theory of cognitive development. Children below age 3 years have not developed a gender identity. These children often fail at gender labeling, both for themselves and others, and in the process of development, children learn the correct label for themselves before others. Cognitive developmental theory relies on the development of gender constancy as a basis for other gender-related knowledge, but research has indicated that the knowledge that one remains the same gender does not necessarily develop before other gender knowledge, a damaging piece of evidence for this theory. This theory correctly predicts the gender stereotyping that is common among children. Views the acquisition of gender-related behavior as part of general cognitive development -Occurs through interactions with the environment -Follows Piaget's theory of cognitive development -Children's abilities develop in stages

ability to use boy/girl labels consistently

belief that gender is constant throughout lifetime

hypothesizes that children develop schema for gender, a cognitive structure that organizes and guides perception. In this view gender-related behaviors appear not only as a result of general cognitive development but also due to the adoption of specific schemata related to gender. Children come to understand masculinity and femininity, and they attend to and come to behave in ways consistent with their schema. Gender schemata influence information processing, memory, and attitudes, which leads to gender stereotyping. Children develop schema for gender: -The cognitive structure that organizes and guides perceptions -MORE important to identity than other schema! -Gender-related behaviors appear: -As a result of general cognitive development -Due to the adoption of specific schemata related to gender

Development is complex—none of the theories explains all the data! Social Learning theory Concepts do not appear incrementally Cognitive Developmental theory Does not allow for differences in boys'/girls' development Gender Schema theory Does not address differences in schemata between girls and boys

identifying and accepting the self as male or female. Factors in the development of gender identity include the ability to distinguish between the sexes and label each, knowledge of gender roles, and how each individual fits into these categories.

behaviors typically associated with males or females

Starts at birth, with different treatment for boys and girls Infants as young as 7/9 months can distinguish between women's and men's faces, but they attend primarily to hair length as the distinguishing cue. By age 24 months, toddlers exhibit some knowledge of gender-typical activities.

Under 18 months: fail at gender labeling 24 months: most are correct in labeling includes learning to apply gender labels correctly, which occurs between 2 and 3 years. By age 3 many children can form grouping based on gender but still lack gender constancy: a complex concept that includes gender stability, the belief that gender is a permanent personal feature, and gender consistency, the belief that people retain their gender even when they undergo other physical changes. By age 4, most children have a concept of gender-typed activities and some gender stereotypes. During the first few grades of elementary school, children can be misled into making mistakes of gender consistency by the transformation in physical appearance or proper name, indicating how difficult this aspect of gender knowledge is for children to acquire. -Gender as permanent, unchangeable -Comprised of -Gender stability: Gender as a stable personal-characteristic -Gender consistency: Retain gender even when physical features/behaviors change

Reflect their socialization Both children and adults have more positive attitudes about "tomboys" than about "sissies." Children master information about their own gender before the other -Greater pressure on boys to adopt the typical and approved gender role. more rigid and harsh training. -Girls are allowed greater leeway in behavior -Girls develop gender knowledge faster than boys -Children evaluate their own gender more positively than the other gender

continues during later childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, but most of the research has concentrated on developing gender flexibility. People experience an increased ability to be more flexible concerning gender and a greater tolerance of atypical gender-related behaviors. Increasing gender knowledge forms the basis for this flexibility, but women tend to be more gender flexible than men, and people tend to allow for more flexibility for self than for others. -For most children, gender development is complete by age 6 -Around age 11, boys spend more time in gender-typed activities -By middle childhood, children exhibit some stability in terms of gender-typed patterns of activities

-Gender identity continues to develop during adolescence and into adulthood -Sources of influence: -Biological factors -Family environment -Peers -Media

the biology that underlies gender identity remains elusive. Recent research relating prenatal hormone levels to childhood masculinity and femininity suggests that prenatal hormone exposure may have an impact on developing gender identity. However, even children with intersex conditions usually develop a clear male or female gender identity. The evidence from individuals who have been sexually reassigned is not so clear. One famous case—the case of John/Joan—indicated that reassignment was unsuccessful and chromosomal sex dominated gender identity, but another similar case was successful, and the genetically male individual adopted a female gender identity. Biology may prime individuals to develop gender identity, but it is not clear that biology determines gender identity. -Configuration of external genitalia -Contributes to categorizing and identity -Evolutionary view: adaptations have shaped gender-related behaviors Girls: expressions of nurturing Boys: exploring the environment

Prenatal hormones -Potentially related to childhood behavior -Influence of higher levels: Eg., effects of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) -Even when within normal range: -Girls high in 'masculine' behavior had mothers with higher levels of testosterone during pregnancy -Sex reassignment surgery

related through both parents' and siblings' behaviors. Parents influence gender role development, especially in terms of traditional gender role ideology. Within families, fathers tend to be more traditional and more influential than mothers, pushing children toward traditional gender role behaviors. Without fathers present, children tend to be less traditional. Although many parents endorse gender equity, assignment of chores tends to reinforce traditional gender role behavior. In addition, parents often provide gendered models for their children. The presence and gender of siblings also affects children's gender development. Having more siblings tends to be associated with more gender stereotyping, especially when the siblings are a mixture of girls and boys. Family context is critically important -Both overt and covert beliefs about gender -Differential treatment by parents for boys/girls -interactions, toys, sports, academics -Traditional vs Non-traditional homes -Influence on gender role flexibility Many parents endorse equality, but still serve as gendered role models -Types of employment -Division of household chores Gender composition of siblings affects gender socialization -More siblings-> more gender stereotyping

Gender segregation is a prominent feature of children's interactions during middle childhood, and this same-gender interaction tends to preserve and magnify gender differences. -Peers are highly influential -Around age 3, children develop preference for same-gender peers -Differences in activities -Boys are rougher, more competitive, form hierarchies Peers may act as the "gender police" to curtail gender flexibility, but peers may also act to promote gender flexibility. -Curtailing cross-gender behaviors Especially in early, middle childhood -Or may act to promote gender flexibility As is often the case in older youth, e.g., college age

Both print and electronic media provide models of gendered behaviors that influence children, adolescents, and adults. Media portrayals can be so powerful that they become the standard for people's lives, cultivating what people accept as normal and desirable. Massive influence -"Cultivates" belief of the world -Synthesized realism

is prominent, providing inaccurate and systematically biased views of women and men. For example, women do not appear on television or in movies in proportion to their presence in the population, and depictions of women and men in these two media tend to be consistent with stereotypes. Despite the fictional nature of programming, media stereotypes have the power to influence people and promote stereotypical thinking. Media provide inaccurate and systematically biased information about gender: Males: Older, more prestigious, often the lead character Females: Younger, less likely to be employed, often secondary characters

The types of bias in adult programming appear in children's television, promoting stereotypical views of gender-related behaviors. Movies, videos, and children's books all tend to portray gender in stereotypical ways. Children average about 30 hours of television viewing per week Stereotypic gender roles common in: --programming biases --commercials targeted at youth Many groups advocate for media education to reduce negative effects of gender stereotyping

Gender identity disorder (GID) Must meet four of five DSM criteria: 1. cross-sex behaviors 2. cross-sex toy and activity preferences 3. cross-sex peer affiliation 4. cross-dressing 5. a stated desire to be the other sex

not all children accept the gender role that matches their sex. Boys receive more pressure to conform to the male gender role, but more boys than girls are diagnosed with gender identity disorder in which they adopt cross-gender behavior and resist identifying with their own sex. As adults, these boys may grow into men with gender dysphoria, dissatisfaction with their gender, and some seek sexual reassignment, becoming transsexual or transgendered individuals. Although people tend to confuse gender dysphoria with homosexuality and tranvestism, these behaviors are separable. Gender identity disorder remains controversial and far from well understood. Some seek sexual reassignment, toward becoming transsexual individuals. It is a process during which "transgendered" is often preferred.

have been a concern of psychology since its early years. With the development of intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test, psychologists began to measure the IQs of large numbers of people and found no gender differences. This lack of gender difference was surprising, given the societal assumption of women's intellectual inferiority.

Women were not as intelligent as men

Found no gender differences Contrasted the societal assumption of women's intellectual inferiority

Focused interest on various mental abilities and the findings that women tend to score higher on verbal tasks, whereas men tend to score higher on performance tasks. Verbal Performance consists of a variety of tasks that require a verbal response. Various reviews suggest that the advantage for girls and women is small and may be too small to be of any practical value. However, their advantage in writing performance is large. Mathematical and Quantitative Performance show no gender differences during elementary school. Beginning during junior high school, the definition of mathematical ability changes, and boys begin to outperform girls on some standardized mathematics tests. Tests such as the SAT underpredict women's and overpredict men's math performance in college, suggesting that these tests are biased. Attitudes toward math differ more than performance does. Girls feel that math is less important to their future, feel less confident about their math ability than boys, and receive less encouragement from parents and teachers. Boys and girls tend to perceive that math is a male domain. Spatial Performance has been defined in an even greater variety of ways than have verbal and mathematical performance, leading to a great diversity of findings. Spatial perception includes the ability to identify and locate the horizontal or vertical in the presence of distracting information, and boys and men show a small advantage on this type of task. Mental rotation includes the ability to visualize objects as they would appear if rotated in space, and boys and men have a large advantage in such tasks. Spatial visualization refers to the ability to process spatial information so as to understand the relationship between objects in space, such as the ability to see a figure embedded in other figures, and this spatial task does not always show gender differences. Spatiotemporal ability involves judgments about moving objects in space, and the limited research suggests that men do better than women at these tasks. Research indicates that experience is a factor in all of these types of spatial performance, and boys may get more experience with these tasks than girls, explaining their advantage in several of these tasks. Other Mental Abilities include memory, creativity, musical ability, and nonverbal communication. As the headline story suggested, women and men use different strategies to find their way. Men are more successful in navigating in laboratory situations, but both are equally successful when navigating around in the world. Gender-related differences that appear in performance on memory, creativity, musical ability, and nonverbal communication tend to be attributable to gender role expectation rather than mental abilities. For example, gender differences in communication style, especially in the ability to interpret nonverbal cues, may be more related to status and power than to gender. SOURCE OF THE DIFFERENCE could be structural or functional differences in the brain, socialization, or conformity to gender expectation. Assess a range of abilities Women score higher on verbal subtests Men score higher on performance subtests

Information - general knowledge Similarities - verbal reasoning; categories Arithmetic - numeric Vocabulary - word meanings Comprehension - social judgment Digit Span - short-term auditory memory

Picture Completion - memory/ visual detail Coding - visual-motor skills Picture Arrangement - visual sequential reasoning Block Design - visual abstraction Object Assembly - part-whole reasoning Mazes - planning, visual-motor coordination

Includes a variety of tests related to language, reading, and writing Girls and women have a small advantage -May be too small to be of any practical value Only 1% of the variance attributable to gender 99% of the variance to something OTHER than the gender of the participants Females' advantage in writing performance is larger

Complex pattern of findings Before age 13, slight advantage for girls By age 13, slight advantage for boys Other assessments show no difference Men's performance shows more variability Standardized exams (e.g., SAT, GRE) may exhibit testing bias

Girls: See math as less important to their future Feel less confident about math ability Receive less encouragement from parents and teachers As a result, boys and girls tend to perceive math as a male domain

Even greater variety of tasks than verbal and math; yields a greater diversity of findings: Spatial perception: Identify and locate planes Mental rotation: Visualize objects as they would appear if rotated Spatial visualization: Identify the relationship of objects in space Spatiotemporal ability: Tracking objects moving through space

Overall, research yields no consistent gender-related differences in Memory Creativity Musical ability Non-verbal communication Any difference found tend to be attributable to gender role expectations

Men orient to directions and forming an abstract map of the area. Women are more likely to use landmarks to find their way.

Selection differences during evolution: Empirical confirmation is not possible Influence of prenatal hormones: Creates only small differences in performance Brain imaging technology (PET, fMRI): Some differences in left hemisphere activation There is often more difference within genders than between them! The appeal of a biological basis for gender differences in mental abilities is strong, but the research evidence is weak. The influence of prenatal hormones creates small differences in performance, and empirical confirmation for an evolutionary view of behavior is not possible. The research on functional imaging of living brains has shown some gender differences in patterns of activation, but the results show more individual variation than gender variation. Men's and women's brains are more similar than different.

Cultural and social role differences that men and women experience. Differences in training and experience Ex., familiarity and instructions can influence performance on spatial tasks When people believe that their performance may reflect on them as part of a stigmatized group, their performance tends to suffer, and many situations assessing verbal, quantitative, and spatial performance fall into this category. Stereotype threat: The presence of negative stereotypes affects the performance of those to whom the stereotype applies Examples: math performance, spatial rotation tasks

Differences in abilities seem larger than suggested by research data Confidence levels may be mediated through social beliefs Stereotypes lead to incorrect conclusions Small distinctions can lead to differential expectations for boys and girls The gender differences in several cognitive abilities should produce some differences in occupations but not the magnitude of difference that exists. Janet Hyde has argued that the publicity given to gender differences in mental abilities has led to the acceptance of these differences as large when they are not.

Most of the research on cognitive abilities focuses on European Americans in the United States Cross-cultural research indicates that other groups show different patterns Few gender differences are as large as cultural differences in cognitive processes leads to a complex picture of gender differences in mental abilities in which culture as well as gender affect performance on spatial tasks. The male advantage appears in many cultures, but the women in some cultures score higher on spatial tasks than the men in other cultures. Richard Nisbett proposed that people in Eastern and Western cultures think differently, which leading to cultural differences in thought and memory that are much larger than gender-related differences.

overlearned habits about who can show what emotion to whom and when they can show it Make it possible to experience one emotion, but display another (or none at all) An emotional double standard -Women seen as emotional - Men seen as rational These stereotypes do not apply to all emotions -Men more often associated with anger Men and women experience emotions with similar frequencies, although they differ in which emotions: -Males -> excitement, calm -Females -> anxiety, sadness

holds that nurturing behaviors of mothers toward their children are determined by biological factors and are largely insensitive to environmental or experiential effects. Although the concept of instinct fell into disfavor as a way to explain behavior, belief in maternal instinct continues, and the rise of evolutionary psychology has brought the concept of instinct into consideration once again. Nurturing offspring is of paramount importance, but the extent to which these behaviors are instinctive is questionable. Nurturing behaviors of mothers -Very Darwinian -Determined by biological factors Reinforces intellectual inferiority Largely insensitive to environment or experiences The concept of instinct fell into disfavor -Lack of empirical support Belief in maternal instinct continues

Deprived baby monkeys of their mothers Observed the effects Conclusions: -Social isolation associated with abnormal behaviors -Contact with other monkeys appeared to be critical (rather than mothering) -Care-giving is dependent on experience This research suggests that caregiving is dependent on experience and not on inherent biological factors. Contact with other monkeys seems to be the critical experience rather than being mothered, which indicates that maternal behaviors are not directly modeled.

An intimate relationship which develops between the caregiver (almost always a mother) and the child -Critical periods of development A variation on maternal instinct: bonding -Depends on innate components in the early interaction between infant and caregiver between infant and caregiver and is important in the infant's survival. Infants who fail to form attachments fail to thrive. The related concept of bonding is a variation on maternal instinct that proposes that a permanent bond forms on the basis on contact during the first few days after birth. Despite the popularity of the concept, research has failed to substantiate claims based on the notion of bonding.

-Attachment extends to a variety of relationships -Biological foundation for nurturing Mothers are primed by hormonal events surrounding birth Increases their responsiveness to babies -Socialization pressures Fathers viewed as "helpers" Mothers viewed as primary care-givers may vary in two ways: responsiveness to children pleasure in caring for children -Some evidence suggests that mothers are primed by hormonal events surrounding the process of giving birth so that they are responsive to babies, providing a biological foundation for nurturing. However, others also respond to infants, and gender differences in responsiveness to children grow over childhood: Girls become more and boys less responsive. These changes may be due to socialization pressure to adopt traditional gender roles. Evaluating the pleasure derived from child care is complicated by the situation that few men are involved in such activities in the same ways and to the same extent as women are. Research indicates that fathers may enjoy their limited role in childcare more than women enjoy their more extensive and demanding one. When men are as involved as women in childcare, they feel the same satisfactions and frustrations. 2. Prominence of Male Aggression has been traced to human prehistory and the advantages of aggression. These stories may reflect the theorists' personal views rather than the circumstances of early humanity. Even for prehistoric humans, aggression would have had disadvantages as well as advantages, and controlling aggression would have been essential.

Research indicates that fathers enjoy their limited role in childcare more than women enjoy their moreextensive and demanding one. When men are as involved as women in childcare, research suggests that they feel the same satisfactions and frustrations!

Traced to human prehistory -advantages of aggression may reflect the theorists' personal viewsrather than the circumstances of early humanity -Even for prehistoric humans, aggression would have had disadvantages as well as advantages Controlling aggression would have been essential

Behaviors that harm others through damage to personal relationships E.g., sulking, silent treatment

Harm through indirect means Behind the scenes Getting someone blamed for a bad outcome Mocking someone's behavior/actions

Anger: internal emotion Aggression: behavioral reaction to anger Expression of anger more closely related to gender role than gender: Masculinity -> more likely Femininity -> less likely should have a strong relationship, with anger being the emotion and aggression the behavioral expression of anger. The two, however, have a far from perfect relationship. Contrary to early theory, frustration does not always lead to aggression. According to surveys in the U.S. and other countries, anger is a very common emotional experience, but physical aggression is not. Gender-related differences exist in the expression of anger, with gender role rather than gender being more strongly related to the expression of emotion.

Longitudinal studies of aggression Aggression tends to decrease For some children, a high level of aggression is a stable trait Boys more likely to be higher in aggression Affected by parenting styles/television are difficult to confirm before elementary school, but boys may be more aggressive even during early childhood. Longitudinal studies of aggression indicate that it is a stable behavior pattern, and children who are aggressive during elementary school tend to grow into aggressive adolescents and adults. Fewer girls than boys are physically aggressive, but girls tend to use social and relational aggression, which produces harm but no physical violence. Boys, however, are more likely to be involved in physical confrontations and to use weapons, making their aggression more dangerous. Aggressive boys and girls may seek different goals, with girls wanting to avoid victimization and boys wanting money and status.

Boys: exert control over others, gain social recognition, get money Boys tend to use more confrontational and direct aggression Girls: loss of self-control, avoid victimization Girls tend to use more indirect or relational aggression

Men are more aggressive --in everyday contacts --when physically attacked --when frustrated Women are more aggressive --when responding to insults, including impolite treatment and rude comments tend to be manifested in terms of style. Women are not less aggressive than men under all circumstances, but men use physical aggression more readily than women, especially when women perceive the likelihood of retaliation. Women are more likely to cause harm to others by using social or indirect aggression. When considering this type of aggression, women are as aggressive as men. When considering physical aggression, substantial gender differences exist; women's experiences with fights tend to be relationship violence, whereas men are more likely to fight with other men.

Men More likely to commit crime/acts of violence 3.5 times more likely to get arrested than women 3.5 times more likely than women to be both perpetrators and victims of violent crime. Women Behavior evaluated differently than men Increase of criminal activity starting 1970s Increases in rate of crime among women have tended to be for nonviolent rather than violent offenses. Women, however, fear criminal victimization more than men, especially rape.

Gender difference is large Rape is a common crime Women report 15.4% since age 14 Another 12.1% met legal definition Reluctance to report rape Only 30% perpetrated by strangers Related to the stigma and victim-blaming The stigma is even more severe for male rape victims Result: official crime statistics are underestimates Women fear rape, but they fear stranger rape when acquaintance rape is far more common but less reported. The reluctance to report rape is related to the stigma and victim blaming associated with this crime, and the stigma is even more severe for male rape victims. Research with rapists indicates some common beliefs, for example, they believe that they have the right to control women and to treat women violently. Research has linked hostile masculinity and high frequency of uncommitted sex to increased likelihood of committing rape. Feeling entitled to have sex puts men at risk for committing rape.

The gender difference in expressivity can be understood as a difference in display rules: Allow (and even demand) that people enact their gender roles Results in the expression of different emotions in boys and men compared to girls and women Men and women are supposed to restrain displays of certain emotions yet are free to show others

Six universal basic human emotions Happiness, surprise, fear, sadness, anger, and disgust Cross-cultural differences Individualistic vs. Collectivistic cultures Acceptance of anger varies Differ in display rules CONSIDERING DIVERSITY, emotions show both consistency and differences across cultures. On an abstract level, many similarities appear across cultures, and Paul Ekman and his colleagues have investigated the ability of people from a variety of cultures to recognize facial expression associated with basic emotions. In terms of specific situations and behaviors, enormous cultural differences appear. People in collectivist cultures tend to differ from those in individualist cultures, but emotional expression differs for collectivist cultures in Asia and Africa. Some cultures discourage the display of anger, whereas others allow it. Cultures vary both in restricting and prescribing what emotions men and women should experience under what circumstances.

has been proposed as the key to gender differences in emotionality, with men failing to express the emotions they feel. Only by concentrating on fear and sadness in women and by overlooking aggression in men could women be considered more expressive than men. The gender difference in expressivity can be understood as a difference in display rules: Men and women are supposed to restrain displays of certain emotions yet are free to show others. These display rules allow (and even demand) that people enact their gender roles, resulting in the expression of different emotions in boys and men compared to girls and women. leads to an emotional double standard -women seen as emotional - men as rational These stereotypes do not apply to all emotions: men are associated with emotions associated with power women with emotions associated with powerlessness. Research on the experience of emotion indicates few gender differences in anger, but men experience more excitement and calm and women more sadness and anxiety. The expression of emotion clearly varies according to social display rules that govern which are appropriate emotional behaviors to show in what contexts.