Taoism – 1751 words – Flashcard

Taoism (or Daoism) is a philosophical, ethical, political and religious tradition of Chinese origin that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (also romanized as Dao). The term Tao means "way", "path" or "principle", and can also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism. In Taoism, however, Tao denotes something that is both the source of, and the force behind, everything that exists. The "way" becomes clear when one is in constant mediation with all thoughts being subconsciously regulated outside the state of mental stillness, although emotions will drive thoughts they remain an absolute choice. While Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the tenets of the School of Yin Yang, the Tao Te Ching, a compact and ambiguous book containing teachings attributed to Laozi (Chinese: 老子; pinyin: Lǎozǐ; Wade-Giles: Lao Tzu), is widely considered its keystone work. Together with the writings of Zhuangzi, these two texts build the philosophical foundation of Taoism deriving from the 8 Hexagrams of Fu Xi in the 2700s BCE in China. Taoist propriety and ethics may vary depending on the particular school, but in general they tend to emphasize wu-wei (action through non-action), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the Three Treasures: compassion, moderation, and humility. Taoism has had profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries, and clerics of institutionalised Taoism (Chinese: 道士; pinyin: dàoshi) usually take care to note distinction between their ritual tradition and the customs and practices found in Chinese folk religion as these distinctions sometimes appear blurred. Chinese alchemy (especially neidan), Chinese astrology, Chan (Zen) Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia. After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the Daozang—which was published at the behest of the emperor. Throughout Chinese history, Taoism was several times nominated as a state religion. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favor. Today, Taoism is one of five religions officially recognized in China, and although it does not travel readily from its Asian roots, claims adherents in a number of societies.[1] Taoism also has sizable communities in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and in Southeast Asia. A Chinese philosopher defines Taoism thus: "early forms come from understanding and experience of the Tao. Experience of the Tao is an irreducible element of the formation and transformation of Chinese experience of the ultimate".[2] Contents 1 Definition 1.1 Spelling and pronunciation 1.2 Categorization 1.3 Who is a "Taoist"?—lays and clergy 2 Origins and development 3 Doctrines 3.1 Ethics 3.1.1 Tao and Te 3.1.2 Wu-wei 3.1.3 Naturalness 3.1.4 Three Treasures 3.2 Cosmology 3.3 Theology 4 Texts 4.1 Tao Te Ching 4.2 Zhuangzi 4.3 I Ching 4.4 Daozang 4.5 Other texts 5 Symbols and images 6 Practices 6.1 Rituals 6.2 Physical cultivation 7 Society 7.1 Adherents 7.2 Art and poetry 7.3 Political aspects 7.4 Relations with other religions and philosophies 8 See also 9 References 9.1 Footnotes 9.2 Bibliography 10 Further reading 11 External links Definition Spelling and pronunciation Main article: Daoism-Taoism romanization issue English speakers continue to debate the preferred romanization of the words "Daoism" and "Taoism". The root Chinese word 道 "way, path" is romanized tao in the older Wade-Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system. In linguistic terminology, English Taoism/Daoism is formed from the Chinese loanword tao/dao 道 "way; route; principle" and the native suffix -ism. The debate over Taoism vs. Daoism involves sinology, phonemes, loanwords, and politics - not to mention whether Taoism should be pronounced /ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/ or /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/. Daoism is pronounced /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/, but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be /ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/. In theory, both Wade-Giles tao and Pinyin dao are articulated identically, as are Taoism and Daoism. An investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages (a pun on the Dow Jones Indexes) illustrates this /daʊ/ pronunciation's widespread familiarity.[3] In speech, Tao and Taoism are often pronounced /ˈtaʊ/ and ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/, reading the Chinese unaspirated lenis ("weak") /t/ as the English voiceless stop consonant /t/. Lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism. A study of major English dictionaries published in Great Britain and the United States found the most common Taoism glosses were /taʊ.ɪzəm/ in British sources and /daʊ.ɪzəm, taʊ.ɪzəm/ in American ones.[4] Categorization The word "Taoism" is used to translate different Chinese terms which refer to different aspects of the same tradition and semantic field:[5] "Taoist religion" (Chinese: 道教; pinyin: dàojiào; lit. "teachings of the Tao"), or the "liturgical" aspect[6] — A family of organized religious movements sharing concepts or terminology from "Taoist philosophy";[7] the first of these is recognized as the Celestial Masters school. "Taoist philosophy" (Chinese: 道家; pinyin: dàojiā; lit. "school or family of the Tao") or "Taology" (Chinese: 道學; pinyin: dàoxué; lit. "learning of the Tao"), or the "mystical" aspect[8] — The philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the Tao Te Ching (or Daodejing, Chinese: 道德經; pinyin: dàodéjīng) and the Zhuangzi (Chinese: 莊子; pinyin: zhuāngzi). These texts were linked together as "Taoist philosophy" during the early Han Dynasty, but notably not before.[9][10] It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing,[11][12] and Zhuangzi would not have identified himself as a Taoist as this classification did not arise until well after his death.[12] However, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars.[13][14] It is contested by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization of the different Taoist schools, sects and movements.[15] Taoism does not fall under an umbrella or a definition of a single organized religion like the Abrahamic traditions; nor can it be studied as a mere variant of Chinese folk religion, as although the two share some similar concepts, much of Chinese folk religion is separate from the tenets and core teachings of Taoism.[16] Sinologists Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn agree that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations."[17] Chung-ying Cheng, a Chinese philosopher, views Taoism as a religion that has been embedded into Chinese history and tradition. "Whether Confucianism, Daoism, or later Chinese Buddhism, they all fall into this pattern of thinking and organizing and in this sense remain religious, even though individually and intellectually they also assume forms of philosophy and practical wisdom."[2] Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Daoist view of heaven flows mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of the way (dao) can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature".[2] In Chinese history, the three religions of Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism stand on their own independent views, and yet are "involved in a process of attempting to find harmonization and convergence among themselves, so that we can speak of a 'unity of three religious teaching' (sanjiao heyi)".[18] Who is a "Taoist"?—lays and clergy Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. "Taoist", in the sinological literature of the 19th and early 20th centuries, was used as a translation of daoshi (道士, "master of the Tao"), or "Taoist priest", that is applied to the ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skills for the benefit of a community.[19] This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a "liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for the Chinese folk religion, proposed first by Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986).[20] Daoshi traditions are comparable in their role to the non-Taoist fashi (法師, "ritual masters") traditions (Faism).[20] The term dàojiàotú (Chinese: 道教徒; literally: "follower of Taoism"), with the meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, and the creation of the Chinese Taoist Association, but it has little application in the fabric of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the Chinese religion. Origins and development Birth of Laozi, a painting at the Green Goat Temple in Chengdu, Sichuan. Gates of the Chunyang gong in Datong, Shanxi. It's a temple dedicated to Lü Dongbin. A daoshi (Taoist priest) in Macau. Main article: History of Taoism Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism and is closely associated in this context with "original" or "primordial" Taoism.[21] Whether he actually existed is disputed;[22][23] however, the work attributed to him - the Tao Te Ching - is dated to the late 4th century BCE.[24] Taoism draws its cosmological foundations from the School of Naturalists (in form of its main elements - yin and yang and the Five Phases), which developed during the Warring States period (4th to 3rd centuries BC).[25] Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: Philosophical Taoism, i.e. the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi techniques for achieving ecstasy practices for achieving longevity or immortality exorcism.[22] Some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition.[26][27] In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring-States-era phenomena of the wu (connected to the shamanic culture of northern China) and the fangshi (which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity, one of whom supposedly was Laozi himself"), even though later Taoists insisted that this was not the case.[28] Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "... magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism; in the case of the wu, "shamans" or "sorcerers" is often used as a translation.[28] The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists, and relied much on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.[29] The first organized form of Taoism, the Tianshi (Celestial Masters') school (later known as Zhengyi school), developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE; the latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling, who claimed that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142.[30] The Tianshi school was officially recognized by ruler Cao Cao in 215, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return.[31] Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE.[32] Taoism, in form of the Shangqing school, gained official status in China again during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.[33] The Shangqing movement, however, had developed much earlier, in the 4th century, on the basis of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 to 370.[34] Between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled a series of scriptures which later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school,[35] which unfolded its greatest influence during the Song Dynasty (960-1279).[36] Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang.[37] In the 12th century, the Quanzhen School was founded in Shandong. It flourished during the 13th and 14th century and during the Yuan dynasty became the largest and most important Taoist school in Northern China. The school's most revered master, Qiu Chuji, met with Genghis Khan in 1222 and was successful in influencing the Khan towards exerting more restraint during his brutal conquests. By the Khan's decree, the school also was exempt from taxation.[38] Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes under the Ming (1368-1644).[39] The Qing Dynasty (1644-1912), however, much favored Confucian classics over Taoist works. During the 18th century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books.[40] By the beginning of the 20th century, Taoism had fallen much from favor (for example, only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing).[41] Today, Taoism is one of five religions recognized by the People's Republic of China. The government regulates its activities through the Chinese Taoist Association.[42] Taoism is freely practiced in Taiwan, where it claims millions of adherents. Doctrines Ethics Jintai guan (金台观) in Baoji, Shaanxi. A Taoist temple of Mount Longhu, in Jiangxi. Golden Lotus Taoist Temple (Jinlian daoguan) on Jinshan, in Lucheng, Wenzhou, Zhejiang. Taoism tends to emphasize various themes of the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, such as naturalness, spontaneity, simplicity, detachment from desires, and most important of all, wu wei.[43] However, the concepts of those keystone texts cannot be equated with Taoism as a whole.[44] Tao and Te Main articles: Tao and De (Chinese) Tao (Chinese: 道; pinyin: dào) literally means "way", but can also be interpreted as road, channel, path, doctrine, or line.[45] In Taoism, it is "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course."[46] It has variously been denoted as the "flow of the universe",[47] a "conceptually necessary ontological ground",[48] or a demonstration of nature.[49] The Tao also is something that individuals can find immanent in themselves.[50] The active expression of Tao is called Te (also spelled - and pronounced - De, or even Teh; often translated with Virtue or Power; Chinese: 德; pinyin: dé),[51] in a sense that Te results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao.[52] Wu-wei Main article: Wu wei The ambiguous term wu-wei (simplified Chinese: 无为; traditional Chinese: 無爲; pinyin: wú wéi) constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism.[53] Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common translations are "nonaction", "effortless action" or "action without intent".[53] The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": "action without action".[54] In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature.[55] Taoist philosophy proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world, they disrupt that harmony. Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural universe.[56] Thus, a potentially harmful interference must be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly.[57][58] "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."[53] Naturalness Main article: Ziran Naturalness (Chinese: 自然; pinyin: zìrán; Wade-Giles: tzu-jan; lit. "self-such") is regarded as a central value in Taoism.[59] It describes the "primordial state" of all things[60] as well as a basic character of the Tao,[61] and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity.[62][61] To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao;[61] this involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity.[59] An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu (simplified Chinese: 朴; traditional Chinese: 樸; pinyin: pǔ, pú; Wade-Giles: p'u; lit. "uncut wood"), the "uncarved block", which represents the "original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual.[63] It is usually referred to as a state one returns to.[64] Three Treasures Main article: Three Treasures (Taoism) See also: Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine) The Taoist Three Treasures or Three Jewels (simplified Chinese: 三宝; traditional Chinese: 三寶; pinyin: sānbǎo) comprise the basic virtues of ci (Chinese: 慈; pinyin: cí, usually translated as compassion), jian (Chinese: 俭; pinyin: jiǎn, usually translated as moderation), and bugan wei tianxia xian (Chinese: 不敢为天下先; pinyin: bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān, literally "not daring to act as first under the heavens", but usually translated as humility). As the "practical, political side" of Taoist philosophy, Arthur Waley translated them as "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".[65] The Three Treasures can also refer to jing, qi and shen (Chinese: 精氣神; pinyin: jīng-qì-shén; jing is usually translated with "essence" and shen with "spirit"). These terms are elements of the traditional Chinese concept of the human body, which shares its cosmological foundation - Yinyangism - with Taoism. Within this framework, they play an important role in neidan ("Taoist yoga").[66] Cosmology Further information: School of Yin Yang, Qi and Taoism and death Taoist cosmology is based on the School of Yin Yang[25] which was headed by Zou Yan (305 BCE - 240 BCE). The school's tenets harmonized the concepts of the Wu Xing (Five Phases) and yin and yang. In this spirit, the universe is seen as being in a constant process of re-creating itself, as everything that exists is a mere aspect of qi, which, "condensed, becomes life; diluted, it is indefinite potential".[67] Qi is in a perpetual transformation between its condensed and diluted state.[68] These two different states of qi, on the other hand, are embodiments of the abstract entities of yin and yang,[68] two complementary extremes that constantly play against and with each other and cannot exist without the other.[69] Human beings are seen as a microcosm of the universe,[16] and for example comprise the Wu Xing in form of the zang-fu organs.[70] As a consequence, it is believed that deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.[71] Theology Yuanshi Tianzun Lingbao Tianzun Daode Tianzun The Three Pure Ones. Altar to Shangdi (上帝 "Primordial God") and Doumu (斗母 "Mother of the Great Chariot"), together representing the originating principle of the universe in some Taoist cosmologies, in the Chengxu Temple of Zhouzhuang, Jiangxi. Further information: Category:Chinese deities See also: Li Hong (Taoist eschatology) Taoist beliefs include teachings based on various sources. Therefore, different branches of Taoism often have differing beliefs, especially concerning deities and the proper composition of the pantheon.[72] Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that nearly all the sects share.[73] Traditional conceptions of Tao should not be confused with the Western concepts of theism, however. Being one with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in, for example, the Hindu sense.[49][56] Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. Intellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities.[21][74] The pantheon tends to mirror the bureaucracy of Imperial China; deities also may be promoted or demoted for their actions.[75] While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi, and to a lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching, these have generally not become the objects of worship. Texts 1770 Wang Bi edition of the Tao Te Ching. Tao Te Ching Main article: Tao Te Ching The Tao Te Ching or Daodejing is widely considered the most influential Taoist text.[76] According to legend, it was written by Laozi,[77] and often the book is simply referred to as the "Laozi." However, authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of debate,[78] and will probably never be known with certainty.[79] The earliest texts of the Tao Te Ching that have been excavated (written on bamboo tablets) date back to the late 4th century BCE.[80] Throughout the history of religious Taoism, the Tao Te Ching has been used as a ritual text.[81] The famous opening lines of the Tao Te Ching are: 道可道非常道 (pinyin: dào kĕ dào fēi cháng dào) "The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao" 名可名非常名 (pinyin: míng kĕ míng fēi cháng míng) "The name that can be named is not the eternal name."[82] There is significant, at times acrimonious debate regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferable, and which particular translation methodology is best.[83] The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference.[84] The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be ineffable, and accomplishing great things through small means.[85] Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the Heshang Gong commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE.[86] Other important commentaries include the one from Wang Bi and the Xiang'er.[87] Zhuangzi Main article: Zhuangzi (book) The Taoist book Zhuangzi (simplified Chinese: 庄子; traditional Chinese: 莊子; pinyin: Zhuāngzǐ), named after its purported author Zhuangzi, is a composite of writings from various sources, and is considered one of the most important texts in Taoism. The commentator Guo Xiang (circa 300 AD) helped established the text as an important source for Taoist thought. The traditional view is that Zhuangzi himself wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters") and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the "outer" and "miscellaneous" chapters). The work uses anecdotes, parables and dialogues to express one of its main themes, that is aligning oneself to the laws of the natural world and "the way" of the elements.[88][89] I Ching Main article: I Ching The 8 trigrams of the I Ching The I Ching, or Yijing, was originally a divination system that had its origins around 1150 B.C.[90] Although it predates the first mentions of Tao as a philosophical term, this classic Chinese augury was later adopted as a meditative text by Taoists.[91] The I Ching consists of 64 combinations of 8 trigrams (called hexagrams), traditionally chosen by throwing coins or yarrow sticks, to give the diviner some idea of the situation at hand and, through reading of the "changing lines", some idea of what is developing.[92] The 64 commentaries can also be read as a meditation on how change occurs, so it assists Taoists with managing yin and yang cycles as Laozi advocated in the Tao Te Ching. As early as the 18th century, Taoist master Liu Yiming advocated this usage.[91] Daozang Main article: Daozang The Daozang (道藏, Treasury of Tao) is also referred to as the Taoist canon. It was originally compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The version surviving today was published during the Ming Dynasty.[93][94] The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts.[95] Following the example of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka, it is divided into three dong (洞, "caves", "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":[96][97] The Zhen ("real" or "truth" 眞) grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts. The Xuan ("mystery" 玄) grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures. The Shen ("divine" 神) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan （茅山） revelations. Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.[98] The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality.[99] Other texts See also: Mozi While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are many other important texts in traditional Taoism including Mohism. Taishang Ganying Pian ("Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and ethics, and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries.[100] It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened lives.[85] Symbols and images A zaojing depicting a taijitu surrounded by the bagua. Ruyi motifs of a Taoist temple roof in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. The taijitu (simplified Chinese: 太极图; traditional Chinese: 太極圖; pinyin: tàijítú; commonly known as the "yin and yang symbol") as well as the bagua 八卦 ("Eight Trigrams") are associated with Taoist symbolism.[101] The taijitu is not an exclusive symbol of Taoism, however. While almost all Taoist organizations make use of it, one could actually also call it Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. One is likely to see this symbol as decorations on Taoist organization flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to Song Dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century.[102] Previously, yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and dragon.[102] Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc.[103] Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.[104] A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper (or the Bushel, the Chinese equivalent). In the Shang Dynasty the Big Dipper was considered a deity, while during the Han Dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi.[105] Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature Chinese dragons and phoenix made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master.[106] In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture has no universal features that distinguish it from other structures.[107] Practices Rituals A hall of worship of the Erwang Temple, a Taoist temple in Dujiangyan, Sichuan. There are elements of the jingxiang religious practice (incense and candle offerings). An ancestral worship ceremony led by Taoist priests at the pyramidal shaped Great Temple of Zhang Hui (张挥公大殿 Zhāng Huī gōng dàdiàn), the main ancestral shrine dedicated to the progenitor of the Zhang lineage, located at Zhangs' ancestral home in Qinghe, Hebei. At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the spirits of the deceased or the gods, such as during the Qingming Festival. This may include slaughtered animals, such as pigs and ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Joss paper, or Hell Bank Notes, on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved ones. At other points, a vegan diet or full fast may be observed. Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include lion dances and dragon dances; human-occupied puppets (often of the "Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"); tongji (童乩 "spirit-medium; shaman") who cut their skin with knives; Bajiajiang, which are Kungfu-practicing honor guards in demonic makeup; and palanquins carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.[108] Fortune-telling—including astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divination—has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship is also widely encountered in some sects. There is an academic and social distinction between martial forms of mediumship (such as tongji) and the spirit-writing that is typically practiced through planchette writing.[109] Physical cultivation Main article: Neidan See also: Taoist alchemy, Taoist sexual practices and Neijia A recurrent and important element of Taoism are rituals, exercises and substances aiming at aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, at undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, or at improving physical health and thereby extending one's life, ideally to the point of immortality.[110][111] Enlightened and immortal beings are referred to as xian. A characteristic method aiming for longevity is Taoist alchemy. Already in very early Taoist scriptures - like the Taiping Jing and the Baopuzi - alchemical formulas for achieving immortality were outlined.[112][113] A number of martial arts traditions, particularly the ones falling under the category of Neijia (like T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Bagua Zhang and Xing Yi Quan) embody Taoist principles to a significant extent, and some practitioners consider their art a means of practicing Taoism.[114] Society Demographics of adherence to Taoism according to the most recent data. Adherents The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors including defining Taoism. According to a survey of religion in China in the year 2010, the number of people practicing some form of Chinese folk religion is near to 950 million (70% of the Chinese).[115] Among these, 173 million (13%) practice some form of Taoist-defined folk faith.[115] Further in detail, 12 million people have passed some formal initiation into Taoism, or adhere exclusively to it.[115] Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist tradition. Recently, there have been some efforts to revive the practice of Taoist religion. In 1956, the Chinese Taoist Association was formed, and received official approval in 1957. It was disbanded during the Cultural Revolution under Mao, but re-established in 1980. The headquarters of the Association are at the Baiyun guan, or White Cloud Temple, of the Longmen branch of Quanzhen Taoism.[116] Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, most of them belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen schools. For these two schools, ordination has been officially allowed again. However, "the Chinese government prefers the celibate model of ... Quanzhen clergy", while "Zhengyi clergy are often married, and often reside at home."[117] Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: mainland China, Taiwan, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and various Chinese diaspora communities. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In Taiwan 7.5 million people (33% of the population) identify themselves as Taoists.[118] Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of Hong Kong[119] and Singapore[120] show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as Taoists. Art and poetry Six Persimmons, a Taoist-influenced 13th-century Chinese painting by the monk, Mu Qi. Throughout Chinese history there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoist thought. Notable painters influenced by Taosim include Wu Wei, Huang Gongwang, Mi Fu, Muqi Fachang, Shitao, Ni Zan, T'ang Mi, and Wang Tseng-tsu.[121] Taoist arts represents the diverse regions, dialects, and time spans that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was commissioned by the aristocracy, however scholars masters and adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves.[122] Political aspects Unlike Confucianism, Taoism favors philosophical anarchism, pluralism and laissez-faire-government.[123] Laozi has been cited as an early example of a proponent of liberalism.[124][125] On the other hand, politics never have been a main issue in Taoism. Relations with other religions and philosophies Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, Song Dynasty. See also: Vinegar tasters Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to Confucianism.[126] The philosophical terms Tao and De are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism,[127] and Laozi is traditionally held to have been a teacher of Confucius.[128] Zhuangzi explicitly criticized Confucianist and Mohist tenets in his work. In general, Taoism rejects the Confucianist emphasis on rituals, hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors naturalness, spontaneity, and individualism instead.[129] The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by significant interaction and syncretism with Taoism.[130] Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary.[131] Representatives of early Chinese Buddhism, like Sengzhao and Tao Sheng, knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts.[132] Taoism especially shaped the development of Chan (Zen) Buddhism,[133] introducing elements like the concept of naturalness, distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment".[134] Taoism on the other hand also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang period, such as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite organisation. Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another.[135] For example, Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Laozi (and Yijing), was a Confucian.[136] The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three embracing a humanist philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously.[137] This became institutionalised when aspects of the three schools were synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school.[138] Some authors have dealt with comparative studies between Taoism and Christianity. This has been of interest for students of history of religion such as J.J.M. de Groot,[139] among others. The comparison of the teachings of Laozi and Jesus of Nazareth has been done by several authors such as Martin Aronson,[140] and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that they have pararells that should not to be ignored.[141] In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto [142] the main difference is that Christianity preaches a personal God while Theist Taoism does not. Yet, a number of authors, including Lin Yutang,[143] have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of these religions are similar.[144][145] The work "Christ the Eternal Tao"[146] by Hieromonk Damascene provides a study of "The Tao Te Ching" of Lao Tzu, in the light of Christian revelation.

1 Names 2 Historical views 3 Tao Te Ching 3.1 Taoism 4 Influence 4.1 Eremitism 4.2 Politics 5 References 5.1 Footnotes 5.2 Bibliography 6 Further reading 7 External links Names In traditional accounts, Laozi's personal name is usually given as Li Er (李耳, Old *Rəʔ Nəʔ,[5] Mod. Lǐ Ěr) and his courtesy name as Boyang (trad. 伯陽, simp. 伯阳, Old *Pˤrak-lang,[5] Mod. Bóyáng). A prominent posthumous name was Li Dan (李聃, Lǐ Dān).[6][7][8] Laozi itself is an honorific title: 老 (Old *rˤuʔ, "old, venerable"[5]) and 子 (Old *tsə′, "master"[5]). It is usually pronounced /ˌlaʊˈdzʌ/[1][9] in English. It has been romanized numerous ways, sometimes leading to confusion. The most common present form is Laozi or Lǎozǐ,[10] based on the Hanyu Pinyin system adopted by Mainland China in 1958[11] and Taiwan in 2009.[12] During the 20th century, Lao-tzu[13] was more common,[10] based on the formerly prevalent Wade-Giles system. In the 19th century, the title was usually romanized as Lao-tse.[10][14] Other forms include the variants Lao-tze[15] and Lao-tsu[16] and the Latinate Laocius.[citation needed] As a religious figure, he is worshipped under the name "Supreme Old Lord" (太上老君, Tàishàng Lǎojūn)[17] and as one of the "Three Pure Ones". During the Tang, he was granted the title "Supremely Mysterious and Primordial Emperor" (太上玄元皇帝, Táishāng Xuānyuán Huángdì).[citation needed] Historical views In the mid-twentieth century, a consensus emerged among scholars that the historicity of the person known as Laozi is doubtful and that the Tao Te Ching was "a compilation of Taoist sayings by many hands."[18] Alan Watts urged more caution, holding that this view was part of an academic fashion for skepticism about historical spiritual and religious figures and stating that not enough would be known for years - or possibly ever - to make a firm judgment.[19] The earliest certain reference to the present figure of Laozi is found in the 1st-century BCE Records of the Grand Historian collected by the historian Sima Qian from earlier accounts. In one account, Laozi was said to be a contemporary of Confucius during the 6th or 5th century BCE. His surname was Li and his personal name was Er or Dan. He was an official in the imperial archives and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the west. In another, Laozi was a different contemporary of Confucius titled Lao Laizi (老莱子) and wrote a book in 15 parts. In a third, he was the court astrologer Lao Dan who lived during the 4th-century BCE reign of Duke Xian of Qin.[20][21] The oldest text of the Tao Te Ching so far recovered was written on bamboo slips and dates to the late 4th century BCE.[2] According to traditional accounts, Laozi was a scholar who worked as the Keeper of the Archives for the royal court of Zhou.[22] This reportedly allowed him broad access to the works of the Yellow Emperor and other classics of the time. The stories assert that Laozi never opened a formal school but nonetheless attracted a large number of students and loyal disciples. There are many variations of a story retelling his encounter with Confucius, most famously in the Zhuangzi.[23][24] According to Chinese legend, Laozi left China for the west on a water buffalo.[25] He was sometimes held to have come from the village of Chu Jen in Chu.[26] In accounts where Laozi married, he was said to have had a son named Zong who became a celebrated soldier. Many clans of the Li family trace their descent to Laozi, including the emperors of the Tang dynasty.[27] According to the Simpkinses, while many (if not all) of these lineages are questionable, they provide a testament to Laozi's impact on Chinese culture.[28] Laozi meets Yinxi The third story in Sima Qian states that Laozi grew weary of the moral decay of life in Chengzhou and noted the kingdom's decline. He ventured west to live as a hermit in the unsettled frontier at the age of 160. At the western gate of the city (or kingdom), he was recognized by the guard Yinxi. The sentry asked the old master to record his wisdom for the good of the country before he would be permitted to pass. The text Laozi wrote was said to be the Tao Te Ching, although the present version of the text includes additions from later periods. In some versions of the tale, the sentry was so touched by the work that he became a disciple and left with Laozi, never to be seen again.[29] In others, the "Old Master" journeyed all the way to India and was the teacher of Siddartha Gautama, the Buddha. Others claim he was the Buddha himself.[23][30] Depiction of Laozi in E.T.C. Werner's Myths and Legends of China. A seventh-century work, the Sandong Zhunang ("Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns"), embellished the relationship between Laozi and Yinxi. Laozi pretended to be a farmer when reaching the western gate, but was recognized by Yinxi, who asked to be taught by the great master. Laozi was not satisfied by simply being noticed by the guard and demanded an explanation. Yinxi expressed his deep desire to find the Tao and explained that his long study of astrology allowed him to recognize Laozi's approach. Yinxi was accepted by Laozi as a disciple. This is considered an exemplary interaction between Daoist master and disciple, reflecting the testing a seeker must undergo before being accepted. A would-be adherent is expected to prove his determination and talent, clearly expressing his wishes and showing that he had made progress on his own towards realizing the Tao.[31] The Pearly Bag of the Three Caverns continues the parallel of an adherent's quest. Yinxi received his ordination when Laozi transmitted the Daodejing, along with other texts and precepts, just as Taoist adherents receive a number of methods, teachings and scriptures at ordination. This is only an initial ordination and Yinxi still needed an additional period to perfect his virtue, thus Laozi gave him three years to perfect his Dao. Yinxi gave himself over to a full-time devotional life. After the appointed time, Yinxi again demonstrates determination and perfect trust, sending out a black sheep to market as the agreed sign. He eventually meets again with Laozi, who announces that Yinxi's immortal name is listed in the heavens and calls down a heavenly procession to clothe Yinxi in the garb of immortals. The story continues that Laozi bestowed a number of titles upon Yinxi and took him on a journey throughout the universe, even into the nine heavens. After this fantastic journey, the two sages set out to western lands of the barbarians. The training period, reuniting and travels represent the attainment of the highest religious rank in medieval Taoism called "Preceptor of the Three Caverns". In this legend, Laozi is the perfect Daoist master and Yinxi is the ideal Taoist student. Laozi is presented as the Tao personified, giving his teaching to humanity for their salvation. Yinxi follows the formal sequence of preparation, testing, training and attainment.[32] The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the Han dynasty. As Taoism took root, Laozi was worshipped as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Tao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the Way of the Celestial Master, the first organized religious Taoist sect. In later mature Taoist tradition, Laozi came to be seen as a personification of the Tao. He is said to have undergone numerous "transformations" and taken on various guises in various incarnations throughout history to initiate the faithful in the Way. Religious Taoism often holds that the "Old Master" did not disappear after writing the Tao Te Ching but rather spent his life traveling and revealing the Tao.[33] Taoist myths state that Laozi was conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star. He supposedly remained in her womb for 62 years before being born while his mother was leaning against a plum tree. (The Chinese surname Li shares its character with "plum".) Laozi was said to have emerged as a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes, both symbols of wisdom and long life.[34][35] Other myths claim that he was reborn 13 times after his first life during the days of Fuxi. In his last incarnation as Laozi, he lived nine hundred and ninety years and spent his life traveling to reveal the Tao.[33] Tao Te Ching See also: Tao Te Ching, Tao and Wu wei Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching), though the identity of its author(s) and/or compiler(s) has been debated throughout history.[36][37] It is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese cosmogony. As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. In fact, the whole book can be read as an analogy - the ruler is the awareness, or self, in meditation and the myriad creatures or empire is the experience of the body, senses and desires. The Tao Te Ching, often called simply Laozi after its reputed author, describes the Dao (or Tao) as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Dao. The Daodejing intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Dao.[38] Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Taoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point.[39] Livia Kohn provides an example of how Laozi encouraged a change in approach, or return to "nature", rather than action. Technology may bring about a false sense of progress. The answer provided by Laozi is not the rejection of technology, but instead seeking the calm state of wu wei, free from desires. This relates to many statements by Laozi encouraging rulers to keep their people in "ignorance", or "simple-minded". Some scholars insist this explanation ignores the religious context, and others question it as an apologetic of the philosophical coherence of the text. It would not be unusual political advice if Laozi literally intended to tell rulers to keep their people ignorant. However, some terms in the text, such as "valley spirit" (gushen) and "soul" (po), bear a metaphysical context and cannot be easily reconciled with a purely ethical reading of the work.[39] Wu wei (無爲), literally "non-action" or "not acting", is a central concept of the Daodejing. The concept of wu wei is multifaceted, and reflected in the words' multiple meanings, even in English translation; it can mean "not doing anything", "not forcing", "not acting" in the theatrical sense, "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment."[40] It is a concept used to explain ziran (自然), or harmony with the Dao. It includes the concepts that value distinctions are ideological and seeing ambition of all sorts as originating from the same source. Laozi used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Some Taoists see a connection between wu wei and esoteric practices, such as zuowang "sitting in oblivion" (emptying the mind of bodily awareness and thought) found in the Zhuangzi.[39] Some of Laozi's famous sayings include: "When goodness is lost, it is replaced by morality." "The usefulness of a pot comes from its emptiness." "The best people are like water, which benefits all things and does not compete with them. It stays in lowly places that others reject. This is why it is so similar to the Way." "When people see some things as beautiful, other things become ugly. When people see some things as good, other things become bad." "Try to change it and you will ruin it. Try to hold it and you will lose it." "Those who know do not say. Those who say do not know." "A journey of a thousand miles starts under one's feet." "The more that laws and regulations are given prominence, the more thieves and robbers there will be." —Laozi, Tao Te Ching Taoism See also: Taoism Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism, intimately connected with the Daodejing and "primordial" (or "original") Taoism. Popular ("religious") Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. Intellectual ("elite") Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities.[41][42] Influence A stone sculpture of Laozi, located north of Quanzhou at the foot of Mount Qingyuan Eremitism Zhuāngzi (莊子) is a central authority regarding eremitism, a particular variation of monasticism sacrificing social aspects for religious aspects of life. Zhuāngzi considered eremitism the highest ideal, if properly understood.[43] Scholars such as Aat Vervoorn have postulated that Zhuāngzi advocated a hermit immersed in society. This view of eremitism holds that seclusion is hiding anonymously in society. To a Zhuāngzi hermit, being unknown and drifting freely is a state of mind. This reading is based on the "inner chapters" of the self-titled Zhuangzi.[44] Scholars such as James Bellamy hold that this could be true and has been interpreted similarly at various points in Chinese history. However, the "outer chapters" of Zhuāngzi have historically played a pivotal role in the advocacy of reclusion. While some scholars state that Laozi was the central figure of Han Dynasty eremitism, historical texts do not seem to support that position.[45] Politics Potential officials throughout Chinese history drew on the authority of non-Confucian sages, especially Laozi and Zhuangzi, to deny serving any ruler at any time. Zhuangzi, Laozi's most famous follower in traditional accounts, had a great deal of influence on Chinese literati and culture. Political theorists influenced by Laozi have advocated humility in leadership and a restrained approach to statecraft, either for ethical and pacifist reasons, or for tactical ends. In a different context, various anti-authoritarian movements have embraced the Laozi teachings on the power of the weak.[46] Left-libertarians have been highly influenced by Laozi as well. In his 1937 book Nationalism and Culture, the anarcho-syndicalist writer and activist Rudolf Rocker praised Laozi's "gentle wisdom" and understanding of the opposition between political power and the cultural activities of the people and community.[47] In his 1910 article for the Encyclopedia Britannica, Peter Kropotkin also noted that Laozi was among the earliest exponents of essentially anarchist concepts.[48] More recently, anarchists such as John P. Clark and Ursula K. Le Guin have written about the conjunction between anarchism and Taoism in various ways, highlighting the teachings of Laozi in particular.[49] In her rendition of the Tao Te Ching, Le Guin writes that Laozi "does not see political power as magic. He sees rightful power as earned and wrongful power as usurped... He sees sacrifice of self or others as a corruption of power, and power as available to anyone who follows the Way. No wonder anarchists and Taoists make good friends."[50] The right-libertarian economist Murray Rothbard suggested that Laozi was the first libertarian,[51] likening Laozi's ideas on government to F.A. Hayek's theory of spontaneous order.[52] James A. Dorn agreed, writing that Laozi, like many 18th century liberals, "argued that minimizing the role of government and letting individuals develop spontaneously would best achieve social and economic harmony."[53] Similarly, the Cato Institute's David Boaz includes passages from the Daodejing in his 1997 book The Libertarian Reader.[54] Philosopher Roderick Long, however, argues that libertarian themes in Taoist thought are actually borrowed from earlier Confucian writers.[55]

The 6th century BCE started the first day of 600 BCE and ended the last day of 501 BCE. Map of the world in 500 BC Pāṇini, in India, composed a grammar for Sanskrit, in this century or slightly later.[1] This is the oldest still known grammar of any language. In the Near East, the first half of this century was dominated by the Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean empire, which had risen to power late in the previous century after successfully rebelling against Assyrian rule. The Kingdom of Judah came to an end in 586 BCE when Babylonian forces under Nebuchadnezzar II captured Jerusalem, and removed most of its population to their own lands. Babylonian rule was toppled however in the 540s, by Cyrus, who founded the Persian Empire in its place. The Persian Empire continued to expand and grew into the greatest empire the world had known at the time. In Iron Age Europe, the Celtic expansion was in progress. China was in the Spring and Autumn Period. Monument 1, an Olmec colossal head at La Venta Mediterranean: Beginning of Greek philosophy, flourishes during the 5th century BCE The late Hallstatt culture period in Eastern and Central Europe, the late Bronze Age in Northern Europe East Asia: The Spring and Autumn Period. Chinese philosophy become the orthodoxy of China. Confucianism, Legalism and Moism flourish. Laozi founds Taoism Middle East: During the Persian empire, Zoroaster, aka Zarathustra, founded Zoroastrianism, a dualistic philosophy. This was also the time of the Babylonian captivity of the ancient Jews Ancient India: The Buddha and Mahavira found Buddhism and Jainism The decline of the Olmec civilization in America Contents 1 Events 1.1 590s BCE 1.2 580s BCE 1.3 570s BCE 1.4 560s BCE 1.5 550s BCE 1.6 540s BCE 1.7 530s BCE 1.8 520s BCE 1.9 510s BCE 1.10 500s BCE 1.11 Unknown Events 2 Significant people 3 Inventions, discoveries, introductions 4 Sovereign States 5 References 6 Decades and years Events Solon, creator of the Solonian Constitution of Athens which incorporated the first elements of formalised civil democracy in world history 590s BCE Mid-6th century BCE: Foundation of Temple of Olympian Zeus (Athens) is made. 598 BCE: Jehoiachin succeeds Jehoiakim as King of Judah. 16 March 597 BCE: Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as King. 595 BCE: Psammetichus II succeeds Necho II as King of Egypt. 594 BCE: Solon appointed archon of Athens; institutes democratic reforms. 590 BCE: Egyptian army sacks Napata, compelling the Cushite court to move to a more secure location at Meroe near the sixth Cataract [2] 580s BCE 589 BCE: Apries succeeds Psammetichus II as King of Egypt. 588 BCE: Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon begins siege of Jerusalem; some sources set the date at 587 BC. 587 BCE/586 BCE: Jerusalem falls to the Babylonians, ending the Kingdom of Judah. The conquerors destroy the Temple of Jerusalem and exile the land's remaining inhabitants. Babylonian Captivity for the Jews began. 586 BCE: death of King Ding of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China 28 May 585 BCE: A solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Thales, while Alyattes II is battling Cyaxares. This leads to a truce. This is one of the cardinal dates from which other dates can be calculated. 585 BCE/584 BCE: Astyages succeeds Cyaxares as King of the Medes. 585 BCE: King Jian of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 582 BCE: Pythian Games founded at Delphi (traditional date). 580 BCE: Cambyses I succeeds Cyrus I as King of Anshan and head of the Achaemenid dynasty (approximate date). 580 BCE: Isthmian Games founded at Corinth (traditional date) 570s BCE 579 BCE: Servius Tullius succeeds the assassinated Lucius Tarquinius Priscus as King of Rome (traditional date). 573 BCE: Nemean Games founded at Nemea (traditional date). 572 BCE: Death of King Jian of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 571 BCE: King Ling of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 570 BCE: Amasis II succeeds Apries as King of Egypt. 570 BCE: Pythagoras of Samos is born (approximate date). 560s BCE 568 BCE: Amtalqa succeeds his brother Aspelta as King of Kush. 562 BCE: Amel-Marduk succeeds Nebuchadnezzar as King of Babylon. 560 BCE: Neriglissar succeeds Amel-Marduk as King of Babylon. 560 BCE/561 BCE: Croesus becomes King of Lydia. 560 BCE: Pisistratus seizes the Acropolis of Athens and declares himself tyrant. He is deposed in the same year. 550s BCE 550s BCE: Carthage conquers Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. 559 BCE: King Cambyses I of Anshan dies and is succeeded by his son Cyrus II the Great. 558 BCE: Hegesias removed as Archon of Athens. 558 BCE: The Chinese state of Jin defeats its rival Qin in battle. 556 BCE: Pisistratus is exiled from Athens to Euboea. 556 BCE: Labashi-Marduk succeeds Neriglissar as King of Babylon. 556 BCE/555 BC: Nabonidus succeeds Labashi-Marduk as King of Babylon. 550 BCE: Abdera is destroyed by the Thracians. 550 BCE: Cyrus II the Great overthrows Astyages of the Medes, establishing the Persian Empire. 550 BCE: The Late Mumun Period begins in the Korean peninsula. 540s BCE 547 BCE: Croesus, Lydian King, is defeated by Cyrus of Persia near the River Halys. 546 BCE: Cyrus of Persia completes his conquest of Lydia, and makes Pasargadae his capital. 544 BCE: People of Teos migrate to Abdera, Thrace to escape the yoke of Persia. 544 BCE: King Jing of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 543 BCE: North Indian Prince Vijaya invades Ceylon and establishes a Sinhalese dynasty.[citation needed] 543 BCE: Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, purifies the island of Delos (approximate date). 540 BCE: Greek city of Elea of southern Italy founded (approximate date). 540 BCE: Persians conquer Lycian city of Xanthos, now in southern Turkey (approximate date). 530s BCE 539 BCE: Babylon is conquered by Cyrus the Great, defeating Nabonidus. 538 BCE: Return of some Jews from Babylonian exile who build the Second Temple about seventy years after the destruction of the First Temple, from 520 BCE-516 BCE. 537 BCE: Jews transported to Babylon are allowed to return to Jerusalem, bringing to a close the Babylonian captivity. 536 BCE: According to tradition, the Biblical prophet Daniel receives an angelic visitor.[3] 534 BCE: Lucius Tarquinius Superbus becomes King of Rome. 534 BCE: Competitions for tragedy are instituted at the City Dionysia festival in Athens. 530 BCE: Cambyses II succeeds Cyrus as King of Persia. 520s BCE 528 BCE: Gautama Buddha attains Enlightenment, and begins his ministry. He founds Buddhism in India. It becomes a major world religion. 526 BCE: Psammetichus III succeeds Amasis II as King of Egypt. 525 BCE: Cambyses II, ruler of Persia, conquers Egypt, defeating Psammetichus III. This is considered the end of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, and the start of the Twenty-seventh Dynasty. 522 BCE: Smerdis succeeds Cambyses II as ruler of Persia. 522 BCE: Babylon rebels against Persian rule. 521 BCE: Darius I succeeds Smerdis as ruler of Persia. 521 BCE: The Babylonian rebellion against Persian rule is suppressed 520 BCE: King Dao of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China but dies before the end of the year 520 BCE: Cleomenes I succeeds Anaxandridas II as King of Sparta (approximate date) 510s BCE 519 BCE: King Jing of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou Dynasty of China. 516 BCE: Indian subcontinent—Occupation of Punjab is completed by the Persian King Vistaspa. 12 March 515 BCE: Construction is completed on the Temple in Jerusalem. 514 BCE: King Helü of Wu establishes the "Great City of Helü", the ancient name for Suzhou, as his capital in China. 513 BCE: Darius the Great subdues the Getae and east Thrace in his war against the Scythians. 510 BCE: Hippias, son of Pisistratus and tyrant of Athens, is expelled by a popular revolt supported by Cleomenes I, King of Sparta and his forces. 510 BCE: End of reign of Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, last King of the traditional seven Kings of Rome. 510 BCE: Establishment of the Roman Republic. 510 BCE: Demaratus succeeds Ariston as King of Sparta (approximate date). 500s BCE 13 September 509 BCE: The temple of Jupiter on Rome's Capitoline Hill is dedicated on the Ides of September. 508 BCE: Office of pontifex maximus created in Rome. 507 BCE: Cleisthenes, Greek reformer, takes power and increases democracy. 506 BCE: Battle of Bai ju: Forces of the Kingdom of Wu under Sun Tzu defeat the forces of Chu. 505 BCE: First pair of Roman consuls elected. 4 December 502 BCE: Solar eclipse darkens Egypt (computed, no clear historical record of observation). 502 BCE: The Latin League defeats the Etruscans under Lars Porsena at Aricia. 502 BCE: Naxos rebels against Persian domination sparking the Ionian Revolt. 501 BCE: Cleisthenes reforms democracy in Athens. 501 BCE: Naxos is attacked by the Persian Empire. 501 BCE: In response to threats by the Sabines, Rome creates the office of dictator. 501 BCE: Confucius is appointed governor of Chung tu. 501 BCE: Gadir (present-day Cádiz) is captured by Carthage (approximate date). 500 BCE: Bantu-speaking people migrate into south-west Uganda from the west (approximate date). 500 BCE: Refugees from Teos resettle Abdera. 500 BCE: Darius I of Persia proclaims that Aramaic be the official language of the western half of his empire. 500 BCE: Signifies the end of the Nordic Bronze Age civilization in Oscar Montelius periodization system and begins the Pre-Roman Iron Age. 500 BCE: Foundation of first republic in Vaishali Bihar India. Unknown Events Persians begin to seize power. Persians dominate eastern Mediterranean. The Persians under Darius I and later Cyrus invade Transoxiana. Carthage's merchant empire slowly dominates the western Mediterranean. Tao Te Ching written (traditional date). Confucius formulates his ethical system of Confucianism, which proves highly influential in China. The Sinhalese emigrate to Sri Lanka. Apparent writing of the Book of Psalms. Abkhazia is colonized by the Greeks. Emergence of the Proto-Germanic Jastorf culture. Temple B, Selinus, Sicily, is built. The Autariatae communities united and expanded towards the Triballi in the east and the Ardiaei in the south. Significant people Anaximenes Mahavira of Vaishali, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, (599 BCE-527 BCE) 580s BCE—Nebuchadnezzar II, King of Babylon Anaximenes of Miletus, Greek philosopher (585 BCE-525 BCE) Pythagoras of Samos, Greek mathematician and discoverer of the Pythagorean theorem (c. 580 BCE- c. 500 BCE) 580 BCE—Death of Cyrus I of Anshan (approximate date) Cyrus the Great, King of Persia (576 BC-July 529 BCE, reigned 559 BCE-July 529 BCE) Ezra and Nehemiah, leaders of the Jews returning from the Babylonian Exile May 563 BCE—Birth of Siddhartha Gautama, later known as Gautama Buddha in Lumbini, Nepal (died May 483 BC 563 BCE—Queen Maya, mother of Siddhartha Gautama, dies seven days after giving birth c. 562 BCE—Death of Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon Pisistratus, Tyrant of Athens in 561 BCE, 559 BCE-556 BCE and 546 BCE-528 BCE (died 527 BCE) Solon of Athens, one of the Seven Sages of Greece (638 BCE-558 BCE) c. 556 BCE—Birth of Simonides of Ceos 553 BCE—Emperor Itoku in Japan appeared Stesichorus of Sicily, lyric poet (c. 640 BCE-555 BCE) c. 551 BCE—Death of Zoroaster Confucius, founding figure of Confucianism (551 BCE-479 BCE) Thales, Greek mathematician (635 BC-543 BC), predicts solar eclipse in 585 BC Darius I, King of Persia (born 549 BCE; reigned 521-485 BCE) 547 BCE—Death of Croesus 546 BCE—Death of Anaximander, Greek philosopher (approximate date) 545 BCE—Death of King Ling of Zhou, King of the Zhou Dynasty of China Sun Tzu, author of The Art of War (c. 544 BCE-496 BCE) 543 BCE((To be verified))—Death of Gautama Buddha (traditionally in Thailand and elsewhere—basis of the Thai solar calendar) c. 540 BCE—Birth of Vardhaman Mahavir c. 540 BCE—Amyntas I becomes King of Macedonia 539 BCE/538 BCE—Death of Nabonidus, the last King of Babylon c. 535 BCE—Birth of Heraclitus of Ephesus, Greek philosopher c. 531 BCE—Death of Laozi, founder of Taoism Aeschylus, author of Greek tragedies, (525 BCE-456 BCE) 525 BCE—Death of Psammetichus III, the last Pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt 522 BCE—Birth of Pindar, Greek poet March 521 BCE—Death of Cambyses II, ruler of ancient Persia (suicide) October 521 BCE—Death of Smerdis, ruler of ancient Persia c. 519 BCE—Birth of Xerxes I of Persia Epimenides of Knossos, a famous Cretian seer and philosopher-poet, associated with the Epimenides paradox Lehi, first prophet recorded in the Book of Mormon Thespis, founder of Greek theatre Inventions, discoveries, introductions First archaeological surveys of the Arabian peninsula by Babylonian King Nabonidus Sunshu Ao (孫叔敖), China's first hydraulic engineer, creates an enormous artificial reservoir by damming a river for a massive irrigation project while employed in the service of King Zhuang of Chu (died 591 BCE) Lost-wax casting is spread to Ancient Greece Sovereign States See: List of sovereign states in the 6th century BC. References Ritual and mantras: rules without meaning Google Books "History of the SUDAN". www.historyworld.net. 2007. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 3 August 2007. Daniel 10:4 Bible Online SEVEN GAMES OF INDIA IN THE 6TH CENTURY B.C. Decades and years

The year four hundred and forty years after the birth of Jesus Christ. Year 440 (CDXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Valentinianus and Anatolius (or, less frequently, year 1193 Ab urbe condita). The denomination 440 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. Events By place Roman Empire Flavius Aetius, Roman general (magister militum), returns as triumphator back to Rome after several years' fighting the Burgundians and Visigoths in Gaul. He is honoured by a statue erected by the Senate and by order of emperor Valentinian III. Europe The Huns under Attila reappear in force along the frontier of the Western Roman Empire. They attack merchants on the north bank of the Danube and cities in Illyricum, including (according to Priscus) Viminacium, city of Moesia. Africa A Vandal fleet and their allies (Alans, Goths and Moors) set out from Carthage for Sicily, the principal supplier of oil and grain to Italy after the loss of North Africa. They loot all the coastal towns and besiege Palermo. Heavily laden ships return to the court of king Genseric. China Dynasties of the North and South: The Chinese Empire is unified by the Northern Wei Dynasty. The Northern state will have three competing dynasties—Northern Wei, Northern Qi and Northern Liang, while the Southern state is dominated by the Song (or Liu Song) Dynasty. Asia The Hepthalites (White Huns) move south from the Altai Mountains region into Transoxiana, Bactria, Khorasan and eastern Persia. A center of Buddhist studies is established at Nalanda in Bihar on the plains of the Ganges River (India). By topic Art The Parting of Lot and Abraham, mosaic in the nave arcade, Church of Santa Maria Maggiore (Rome), is made. Ancient Games Chaturanga, Indian war game, and an ancestor of chess through the Persian game of Shatranj (or Chatrang), evolves in the Indus Valley on the Indian subcontinent (approximate date). Religion August 18 - Pope Sixtus III dies after an 8-year reign in which he has resisted heresy and sponsored major construction programs in Rome. He is succeeded by Leo I as the 45th pope. September 29 - Leo I begins to formulate orthodoxy and condemns Eutychianism, an extreme form of monophysitism which holds that the human nature of Christ is absorbed by his divine nature. Winter - Leo I sends a letter to Valentinian III, stating "by the Holy Spirit's inspiration the emperor needs no human instruction and is incapable of doctrinal error". Births Bodhidharma, semi-legendary Buddhist monk (approximate date) Childeric I, king of the Salian Franks (approximate date) Euric, Visigothic king and son of Theodoric I (d. 484) Gaudentius, son of Flavius Aetius (approximate date) Qi Wudi, Chinese emperor of the Southern Qi Dynasty (d. 493) Tonantius Ferreolus, Gallo-Roman senator and prefect of Gaul Vakhtang I, king of Iberia (modern Georgia) (approximate date) Wen Cheng Di, emperor of the Northern Wei Dynasty (d. 465) Deaths February 17 - Mesrob, Armenian monk and linguist Paulinus[disambiguation needed], master of the offices in Constantinople (approximate date) August 18 - Pope Sixtus III Yuan Qigui, empress and wife of Wen of Liu Song (b. 405) References

China (simplified Chinese: 中国; traditional Chinese: 中國; pinyin: Zhōngguó), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a sovereign state located in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population of over 1.35 billion. The PRC is a single-party state governed by the Chinese Communist Party, with its seat of government in the capital city of Beijing.[17] It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four direct-controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). The PRC also claims the territories governed by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity commonly known as Taiwan, as a part of its territory, which includes the island of Taiwan as Taiwan Province, Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province. These claims are controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan.[18] Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometers, China is the world's second-largest country by land area,[19] and either the third or fourth-largest by total area, depending on the method of measurement.[i] China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes and the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometres (9,000 mi) long, and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East and South China Seas. The history of China goes back to the ancient civilization - one of the world's earliest - that flourished in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, China's political system was based on hereditary monarchies, known as dynasties, beginning with the semi-mythological Xia of the Yellow River basin (c. 2000 BCE). Since 221 BCE, when the Qin Dynasty first conquered several states to form a Chinese empire, the country has expanded, fractured and been reformed numerous times. The Republic of China (ROC) overthrew the last dynasty in 1911, and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949. After the surrender of the Empire of Japan in World War II, the Communist Party defeated the nationalist Kuomintang in mainland China and established the People's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, while the Kuomintang relocated the ROC government to its present capital of Taipei. China had the largest and most complex economy in the world for most of the past two thousand years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline.[20][21] Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978, China has become one of the world's fastest-growing major economies. As of 2013, it is the world's second-largest economy by both nominal total GDP and purchasing power parity (PPP), and is also the world's largest exporter and importer of goods.[22] China is a recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world's largest standing army, with the second-largest defence budget.[23][24] The PRC has been a United Nations member since 1971, when it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM and the G-20. China is a great power and a major regional power within Asia, and has been characterized as a potential superpower by a number of commentators.[25][26] Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Early dynastic rule 2.3 Imperial China 2.4 End of dynastic rule 2.5 Republic of China (1912-1949) 2.6 People's Republic of China (1949-present) 3 Geography 3.1 Political geography 3.2 Landscape and climate 3.3 Biodiversity 3.4 Environmental issues 4 Politics 4.1 Communist Party 4.2 Government 4.3 Administrative divisions 4.4 Foreign relations 4.4.1 Trade relations 4.4.2 Territorial disputes 4.4.3 Emerging superpower status 4.5 Sociopolitical issues, human rights and reform 5 Military 6 Economy 6.1 Economic history and growth 6.2 China in the global economy 6.3 Class and income equality 6.4 Internationalization of the renminbi 7 Science and technology 7.1 Historical 7.2 Modern era 8 Infrastructure 8.1 Telecommunications 8.2 Transport 9 Demographics 9.1 Ethnic groups 9.2 Languages 9.3 Urbanization 9.4 Education 9.5 Health 9.6 Religion 10 Culture 10.1 Cuisine 10.2 Sports 11 See also 12 Footnotes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links Etymology Main article: Names of China [show]China This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. The word "China" is derived from the Persian word Chin (چین), which in turn derives from the Sanskrit word Cīna (चीन).[29] It is first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa.[30] The journal was translated and published in England in 1555.[31] The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by Martino Martini, is that Cīna is derived from "Qin" (秦), the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou Dynasty.[32] However, the word was used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata (5th century BCE) and the Laws of Manu (2nd century BCE).[33][34] The official name of the modern country is the People's Republic of China (Chinese: 中华人民共和国; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó). The common Chinese names for the country are Zhōngguó (Chinese: 中国, from zhōng, "central" or "middle", and guó, "state" or "states," and in modern times, "nation") and Zhōnghuá (Chinese: 中华), although the country's official name has been changed numerous times by successive dynasties and modern governments. The term Zhōngguó appeared in various ancient texts, such as the Classic of History of the 6th century BCE,[j] and in pre-imperial times it was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia tribes from perceived "barbarians". The term, which can be either singular or plural, referred to the group of states or provinces in the central plain, but was not used as a name for the country as a whole until the nineteenth century. The Chinese were not unique in regarding their country as "central", with other civilizations having the same view of themselves.[35] History History of China History of China ANCIENT Neolithic c. 8500 - c. 2100 BCE Xia dynasty c. 2100 - c. 1600 BCE Shang dynasty c. 1600 - c. 1046 BCE Zhou dynasty c. 1045 - 256 BCE Western Zhou Eastern Zhou Spring and Autumn Warring States IMPERIAL Qin dynasty 221-206 BCE Han dynasty 206 BCE - 220 CE Western Han Xin dynasty Eastern Han Three Kingdoms 220-280 Wei, Shu and Wu Jin dynasty 265-420 Western Jin Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms Southern and Northern Dynasties 420-589 Sui dynasty 581-618 Tang dynasty 618-907 (Second Zhou 690-705) Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms 907-960 Liao dynasty 907-1125 Song dynasty 960-1279 Northern Song W. Xia Southern Song Jin Yuan dynasty 1271-1368 Ming dynasty 1368-1644 Qing dynasty 1644-1911 MODERN Republic of China 1912-1949 People's Republic of China 1949-present Republic of China on Taiwan 1949-present Related articles [show] This box: view talk edit Main articles: History of China and Timeline of Chinese history Prehistory Main article: Chinese prehistory Jade deer ornament dating from the Shang Dynasty (17th-11th centuries BCE) Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China between 250,000 and 2.24 million years ago.[36] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing) exhibits hominid fossils dated at between 680,000 and 780,000 BCE.[37] The fossils are of Peking Man, an example of Homo erectus who used fire.[38] The Peking Man site has also yielded remains of Homo sapiens dating back to 18,000-11,000 BCE.[39] Some scholars assert that a form of proto-writing existed in China as early as 3000 BCE.[40] Early dynastic rule Further information: Dynasties in Chinese history According to Chinese tradition, the first dynasty was the Xia, which emerged around 2100 BCE.[41] However, the dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959.[42] It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia Dynasty or of another culture from the same period.[43] The succeeding Shang dynasty is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records.[44] The Shang ruled the plain of the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE.[45] Their oracle bone script (from c. 1200 BCE) represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found,[46] and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters.[47] The Shang were conquered by the Zhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou state and continually waged war with each other in the 300-year Spring and Autumn Period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th-3rd centuries BCE, there were seven powerful sovereign states in what is now China, each with its own king, ministry and army. Imperial China Some of the thousands of life-size Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty, ca. 210 BCE The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE, after the state of Qin conquered the other six kingdoms and established the first unified Chinese state. Qin Shi Huang, the emperor of Qin, proclaimed himself the "First Emperor" (始皇帝) and imposed reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of the Chinese language, measurements, length of cart axles, and currency. The Qin Dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after Qin Shi Huang's death, as its harsh legalist and authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion.[48][49] The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that has endured to the present day.[48][49] The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.[50] The Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism, a philosophy developed in the Spring and Autumn period, as its official state ideology. Despite the Han's official abandonment of Legalism, the official ideology of the Qin, Legalist institutions and policies remained and formed the basis of the Han government.[51] The Great Wall of China was built by several dynasties over two thousand years to protect the sedentary agricultural regions of the Chinese interior from incursions by nomadic pastoralists of the northern steppes After the collapse of Han, a period of disunion known as the period of the Three Kingdoms followed.[52] In 581 CE, China was reunited under the Sui. However, the Sui Dynasty declined following its defeat in the Goguryeo-Sui War (598-614).[53][54] Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture entered a golden age.[55] The An Shi Rebellion in the 8th century devastated the country and weakened the dynasty.[56] The Song Dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy.[57] Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly due to the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song Dynasty also saw a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and portrait painting were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity,[58] and social elites gathered to view art, share their own and trade precious artworks. The Song Dynasty saw a revival of Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang.[59] Detail from Along the River During the Qingming Festival, a 12th-century painting showing everyday life in the Song Dynasty's capital city, Bianjing (today's Kaifeng) In the 13th century, China was gradually conquered by the Mongol empire. In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty; the Yuan conquered the last remnant of the Song Dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.[60] A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty. Under the Ming Dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that Zheng He led explorations throughout the world, reaching as far as Africa.[61] In the early years of the Ming Dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. During the Ming Dynasty, philosophers such as Wang Yangming further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and innate morality.[62] In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official who led the peasant revolt. The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing Dynasty then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li's short-lived Shun Dynasty, and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing Dynasty. End of dynastic rule A 19th-century painting depicting the Taiping Rebellion of 1850-1864 The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. In the 19th century, the dynasty experienced Western imperialism following the First Opium War (1839-42) and the Second Opium War (1856-60) with Britain and France. China was forced to sign unequal treaties, pay compensation, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British[63] under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan.[64] The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which millions of people died. In the 1850s and 1860s, the failed Taiping Rebellion ravaged southern China. Other major rebellions included the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855-67), the Nian Rebellion (1851-68), the Miao Rebellion (1854-73), the Panthay Rebellion (1856-73) and the Dungan Revolt (1862-77). The initial success of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by the series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s. In the 19th century, the great Chinese Diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876-79, in which between 9 and 13 million people died.[65] In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi. The ill-fated anti-Western Boxer Rebellion of 1899-1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored an ambitious program of reforms, the Xinhai Revolution of 1911-12 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. Republic of China (1912-1949) Main articles: Republic of China (1912-1949) and History of the Republic of China See also: Taiwan and Taiwan after World War II Sun Yat-sen, the father of modern China (seated on right), and Chiang Kai-shek, later President of the Republic of China Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong toasting together in 1946 following the end of World War II On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president.[66] However, the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and reestablish the republic.[67] After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.[68][69] In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political manoeuvrings, known collectively as the Northern Expedition.[70][71] The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.[72][73] The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communists, against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the Communists retreated in the Long March, until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan.[74] The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), a theatre of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.[75] An estimated 200,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.[76] Japan surrendered unconditionally to China in 1945. Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was put under the administrative control of the Republic of China, which immediately claimed sovereignty. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.[77] People's Republic of China (1949-present) Main article: History of the People's Republic of China The Nationalist government's retreat to Taipei Mao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of the PRC in 1949 Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most of mainland China, and the Kuomintang retreating offshore, reducing the ROC's territory to only Taiwan, Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 1 October 1949, Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China.[78] In 1950, the People's Liberation Army succeeded in capturing Hainan from the ROC[79] and occupying Tibet.[80] However, remaining Nationalist forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s.[81] Mao encouraged population growth, and under his leadership the Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million.[82] However, Mao's Great Leap Forward, a large-scale economic and social reform project, resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and 1961, mostly from starvation.[83] Between 1 and 2 million landlords were executed as "counterrevolutionaries."[84] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a period of political recrimination and social upheaval which lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.[85] After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the faction known as the Gang of Four, who were blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping took power and led the country to significant economic reforms. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded in favour of private land leases. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment.[86] China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the violent suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnation and sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries.[87] Shanghai skyline Jiang Zemin, Li Peng and Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s. Under their administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.[88][89] The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001, and maintained its high rate of economic growth under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao's leadership in the 2000s. However, rapid growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,[90][91] and caused major social displacement.[92][93] Living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the late-2000s recession, but centralized political control remained tight.[94] Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by factional disputes and political scandals.[95] During China's 18th National Communist Party Congress in November 2012, Hu Jintao was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party by Xi Jinping.[96][97] Under Xi, the Chinese government began large-scale efforts to reform its economy,[98][99] which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth.[100][101][102][103] The Xi-Li Administration also announced major reforms to the one-child policy and prison system.[104] Geography Main article: Geography of China A composite satellite image showing the topography of China Longsheng Rice Terrace in Guangxi The Li River in Guangxi Political geography Main articles: Borders of China and Territorial changes of the People's Republic of China The People's Republic of China is the second-largest country in the world by land area[105] after Russia, and is either the third- or fourth-largest by total area, after Russia, Canada and, depending on the definition of total area, the United States.[k] China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi).[106] Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the Encyclopædia Britannica,[107] 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook,[7] to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the CIA World Factbook.[9] China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin.[9] China borders 14 nations, more than any other country except Russia, which also borders 14.[108] China extends across much of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Burma in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan[l] in South Asia; Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; and Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia. Additionally, China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and the Philippines. Landscape and climate The South China Sea coast at Hainan Jiuzhaigou Valley in Sichuan The territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N, and longitudes 73° and 135° E. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast width. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.[109] The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154m) in the Turpan Depression.[110] China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.[111] The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country's highly complex topography. A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert.[112][113] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Korea and Japan. China's environmental watchdog, Sepa, stated in 2007 that China is losing a million acres (4,000 km²) per year to desertification.[114] Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people.[115] Biodiversity Main article: Wildlife of China A giant panda, China's most famous endangered and endemic species, at the Wolong National Nature Reserve in Sichuan China is one of 17 megadiverse countries,[116] lying in two of the world's major ecozones: the Palearctic and the Indomalaya. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil and Colombia.[117] The country signed the Rio de Janeiro Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993.[118] It later produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010.[119] China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest such number in the world),[120] 1,221 species of birds (eighth),[121] 424 species of reptiles (seventh)[122] and 333 species of amphibians (seventh).[123] China is the most biodiverse country in each category outside the tropics. Wildlife in China share habitat with and bear acute pressure from the world's largest population of homo sapiens. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine.[124] Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.[125] China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,[126] and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.[127] The understorey of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support as many as 146,000 species of flora.[127] Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.[127] China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi,[128] and of them, nearly 6,000 are higher fungi.[129] Environmental issues Main article: Environmental issues in China See also: Water resources of the People's Republic of China Wind turbines in Xinjiang. The Dabancheng project is one of Asia's largest wind farms In recent decades, China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution.[130][131] While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favour of rapid economic development.[132] Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country; the World Bank estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world's 20 most-polluted cities are located in China.[133] China is the world's largest carbon dioxide emitter.[134] The country also has water problems. Roughly 298 million Chinese in rural areas do not have access to safe drinking water,[135] and 40% of China's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011.[136] This crisis is compounded by increasingly severe water shortages, particularly in the north-east of the country.[137][138] However, China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy commercialization, with $52 billion invested in 2011 alone;[139][140][141] it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.[142][143] By 2009, over 17% of China's energy was derived from renewable sources - most notably hydroelectric power plants, of which China has a total installed capacity of 197 GW.[144] In 2011, the Chinese government announced plans to invest four trillion yuan (US$618.55 billion) in water infrastructure and desalination projects over a ten-year period, and to complete construction of a flood prevention and anti-drought system by 2020.[137][145] In 2013, China began a five-year, US$277-billion effort to reduce air pollution, particularly in the north of the country.[146] Politics Main article: Politics of the People's Republic of China Tiananmen with a portrait of Mao Zedong The People's Republic of China is one of the world's few remaining socialist states openly endorsing communism (see Ideology of the Communist Party of China). The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian and corporatist,[147] with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against free access to the Internet, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, the right to have children, free formation of social organizations and freedom of religion.[148] Its current political, ideological and economic system has been termed by its leaders as the "people's democratic dictatorship", "socialism with Chinese characteristics" (which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances) and the "socialist market economy" respectively.[149] Communist Party The country is ruled by the Communist Party of China (CPC), whose power is enshrined in China's constitution.[150] The Chinese electoral system is hierarchical, whereby local People's Congresses are directly elected, and all higher levels of People's Congresses up to the National People's Congress (NPC) are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately below.[151] The political system is decentralized, and provincial and sub-provincial leaders have a significant amount of autonomy.[152] There are other political parties in China, referred to in China as democratic parties, which participate in the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).[153] The Great Hall of the People in Beijing, where the National People's Congress convenes Compared to its closed-door policies until the mid-1970s, the liberalization of China has resulted in the administrative climate being less restrictive than before. China supports the Leninist principle of "democratic centralism",[154] but the elected National People's Congress has been described as a "rubber stamp" body.[155] As a single-party state, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China holds ultimate power and authority over state and government.[m] Government Xi Jinping (left) and Li Keqiang (right) The President of China is the titular head of state, serving as the ceremonial figurehead under National People's Congress.[n] The Premier of China is the head of government, presiding over the State Council composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The incumbent President is Xi Jinping, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader.[96] The incumbent Premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making body.[158] There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels.[159][160] However, the Party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.[161][162] Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with 80-95% of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government, according to a 2011 survey.[163] Administrative divisions Main articles: Administrative divisions of China, Districts of Hong Kong and Municipalities of Macau The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces and considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province, although Taiwan is currently and independently governed by the Republic of China, which disputes the PRC's claim.[164] China also has five subdivisions officially termed autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; four municipalities; and two Special Administrative Regions (SARs), which enjoy a degree of political autonomy. These 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, and four municipalities can be collectively referred to as "mainland China", a term which usually excludes the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau. None of these divisions are recognized by the ROC government, which claims the entirety of the PRC's territory. Provinces (省) Claimed Province Anhui (安徽省) Fujian (福建省) Gansu (甘肃省) Guangdong (广东省) Guizhou (贵州省) Hainan (海南省) Hebei (河北省) Heilongjiang (黑龙江省) Henan (河南省) Hubei (湖北省) Hunan (湖南省) Jiangsu (江苏省) Jiangxi (江西省) Jilin (吉林省) Liaoning (辽宁省) Qinghai (青海省) Shaanxi (陕西省) Shandong (山东省) Shanxi (山西省) Sichuan (四川省) Yunnan (云南省) Zhejiang (浙江省) Taiwan (台湾省) governed by ROC Autonomous regions (自治区) Municipalities (直辖市) Special administrative regions (特别行政区) Guangxi (广西壮族自治区) Inner Mongolia / Nei Mongol (内蒙古自治区) Ningxia (宁夏回族自治区) Xinjiang (新疆维吾尔自治区) Tibet / Xizang (西藏自治区) Beijing (北京市) Chongqing (重庆市) Shanghai (上海市) Tianjin (天津市) Hong Kong / Xianggang (香港特别行政区) Macau / Aomen (澳门特别行政区) China administrative claimed included.svg About this image Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of China Chinese President Xi Jinping holds hands with fellow BRICS leaders at the 2014 G20 Brisbane summit in Australia The PRC has diplomatic relations with 171 countries and maintains embassies in 162.[165] Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries; it is thus the largest and most populous state with limited recognition. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.[166] China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries.[167] Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies and hosted the group's third official summit at Sanya, Hainan in April 2011.[168] Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,[169] especially in the matter of armament sales.[170] Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.[171] This policy may have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such as Zimbabwe, North Korea and Iran.[172] China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia,[173] and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.[174][175][176] A meeting of G5 leaders in 2007, with China's Hu Jintao second from right Trade relations In recent decades, China has played an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbours. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues.[177] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), along with Russia and the Central Asian republics. China became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on 11 December 2001. In 2000, the United States Congress approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.[178] China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important export market.[179] In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.[180][181][182] In recent decades, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation;[183][184][185] in 2012, Sino-African trade totalled over US$160 billion.[186] China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with Argentina.[187][188] Territorial disputes Map depicting territorial disputes between the PRC and neighbouring states. For a larger map, see here Main article: Foreign relations of China § International territorial disputes See also: List of wars involving the People's Republic of China In addition to claiming all of Taiwan, China has been involved in a number of other international territorial disputes. Since the 1990s, China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders, including a disputed border with India and an undefined border with Bhutan. China is additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal.[189][190] On 21 May 2014 President Xi, speaking at a conference in Shanghai, pledged to settle China's territorial disputes peacefully. "China stays committed to seeking peaceful settlement of disputes with other countries over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests," he said.[191] Emerging superpower status China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower, with certain commentators citing its rapid economic progress, growing military might, very large population, and increasing international influence as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st century.[26][192] Others, however, warn that economic bubbles and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as the century progresses.[193][194] Some authors also question the definition of "superpower", arguing that China's large economy alone would not qualify it as a superpower, and noting that it lacks the military and cultural influence of the United States.[195] Sociopolitical issues, human rights and reform See also: Human rights in China, Hukou system, Social welfare in China, Elections in the People's Republic of China, Censorship in China and Feminism in China Protests in support of Cantonese media localization in Guangzhou, 2010 The Chinese democracy movement, social activists, and some members of the Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.[196][197] Although criticisms of the government and the ruling Communist Party are tolerated, despite widespread commentary on the contrary, censorship of political speech and information, most notably on the Internet,[198][199] are routinely used to prevent collective action.[200] In 2005, Reporters Without Borders ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index, indicating a very low level of perceived press freedom.[201] In 2014, China ranked 175th out of 180 countries.[202] Rural migrants to China's cities often find themselves treated as second-class citizens by the hukou household registration system, which controls access to state benefits.[203][204] Property rights are often poorly protected,[203] and taxation disproportionately affects poorer citizens.[204] However, a number of rural taxes have been reduced or abolished since the early 2000s, and additional social services provided to rural dwellers.[205][206] A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies and NGOs also routinely criticize China's human rights record, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced abortions,[207] forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights,[148][208][209] and excessive use of the death penalty.[210][211] The government has suppressed demonstrations by organizations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The Chinese state is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang, including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression.[212][213] An investigative report[214] and books[215][216][217] have been published about organ harvesting in China. Ethan Gutmann claims that 65,000 Falun Gong practitioners have been killed for their organs.[217][218][219] The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's present level of economic development and the "people's rights to subsistence and development".[220] It emphasizes the rise in the Chinese standard of living, literacy rate and average life expectancy since the 1970s, as well as improvements in workplace safety and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River floods.[220][221][222] Furthermore, some Chinese politicians have spoken out in support of democratization, although others remain more conservative.[223] Some major reform efforts have been conducted; for an instance in November 2013, the government announced its plans to the abolish the much-criticized re-education through labour program.[104] Although during the 2000s and early 2010s, the Chinese government was increasingly tolerant of NGOs that offer practical, efficient solutions to social problems, such "third sector" activity remained heavily regulated.[224] Military Main article: People's Liberation Army A PLAAF Chengdu J-10A fighter aircraft Chengdu J-20, one of the two indigenously developed fifth-generation fighters in China, the other being Shenyang J-31 With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world, commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC).[225] The PLA consists of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force (PLAGF), the People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN), the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF), and a strategic nuclear force, the Second Artillery Corps. According to the Chinese government, China's military budget for 2014 totalled US$132 billion, constituting the world's second-largest military budget.[24] However, many authorities - including SIPRI and the U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense - argue that China does not report its real level of military spending, which is allegedly much higher than the official budget.[24][226] As a recognized nuclear weapons state, China is considered both a major regional military power and a potential military superpower.[227] According to a 2013 report by the US Department of Defense, China fields between 50 and 75 nuclear ICBMs, along with a number of SRBMs.[23] However, compared with the other four UN Security Council Permanent Members, China has relatively limited power projection capabilities.[228] To offset this, it has developed numerous power projection assets since the early 2000s - its first aircraft carrier entered service in 2012,[229][230][231] and it maintains a substantial fleet of submarines, including several nuclear-powered attack and ballistic missile submarines.[232] China has furthermore established a network of foreign military relationships along critical sea lanes.[233] The Lanzhou (DDG170), a Type 052C destroyer of the PLAN China has made significant progress in modernising its air force in recent decades, purchasing Russian fighter jets such as the Sukhoi Su-30, and also manufacturing its own modern fighters, most notably the Chengdu J-10, J-20 and the Shenyang J-11, J-15, J-16 and J-31.[229][234] China is furthermore engaged in developing an indigenous stealth aircraft and numerous combat drones.[235][236][237] China has also updated its ground forces, replacing its ageing Soviet-derived tank inventory with numerous variants of the modern Type 99 tank, and upgrading its battlefield C3I and C4I systems to enhance its network-centric warfare capabilities.[238] In addition, China has developed or acquired numerous advanced missile systems,[239][240] including anti-satellite missiles,[241] cruise missiles[242] and submarine-launched nuclear ICBMs.[243] According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute's data, China became the world's third largest exporter of major arms in 2010-14, an increase of 143 per cent from the period 2005-09.[244] Economy Main articles: Economy of China, Agriculture in China and List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP China and other major developing economies by GDP per capita at purchasing-power parity, 1990-2013. The rapid economic growth of China (red) is readily apparent.[245] The Shanghai Stock Exchange building in Shanghai's Lujiazui financial district. Shanghai has the 25th-largest city GDP in the world, totalling US$304 billion in 2011[246] As of 2013, China has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP, totalling approximately US$9.469 trillion according to the International Monetary Fund.[13] If purchasing power parity (PPP) is taken into account, China's economy is again second only to the United States, with a 2013 PPP GDP of US$16.149 trillion.[13] In 2013, its PPP GDP per capita was US$11,868, while its nominal GDP per capita was US$6,959. Both cases put China behind around ninety countries (out of 183 countries on the IMF list) in global GDP per capita rankings.[247] Economic history and growth Main article: Economic history of China (1949-present) From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally planned economy. Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a more market-oriented mixed economy under one-party rule. Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones (SEZs). Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses. Modern-day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based on private property ownership,[248] and is one of the leading examples of state capitalism.[249][250] The state still dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008.[251][252][253][254] Nanjing Road, a major shopping street in Shanghai Beijing's central business district in 2007 Since economic liberalization began in 1978, China has been among the world's fastest-growing economies,[255] relying largely on investment- and export-led growth.[256] According to the IMF, China's annual average GDP growth between 2001 and 2010 was 10.5%. Between 2007 and 2011, China's economic growth rate was equivalent to all of the G7 countries' growth combined.[257] According to the Global Growth Generators index announced by Citigroup in February 2011, China has a very high 3G growth rating.[258] Its high productivity, low labour costs and relatively good infrastructure have made it a global leader in manufacturing. However, the Chinese economy is highly energy-intensive and inefficient;[259] China became the world's largest energy consumer in 2010,[260] relies on coal to supply over 70% of its energy needs, and surpassed the US to become the world's largest oil importer in September 2013.[261][262] In the early 2010s, China's economic growth rate began to slow amid domestic credit troubles, weakening international demand for Chinese exports and fragility in the global economy.[263][264][265] In the online realm, China's e-commerce industry has grown more slowly than the EU and the US, with a significant period of development occurring from around 2009 onwards. According to Credit Suisse, the total value of online transactions in China grew from an insignificant size in 2008 to around RMB 4 trillion (US$660 billion) in 2012. The Chinese online payment market is dominated by major firms such as Alipay, Tenpay and China UnionPay.[266] China in the global economy China is a member of the WTO and is the world's largest trading power, with a total international trade value of US$3.87 trillion in 2012.[22] Its foreign exchange reserves reached US$2.85 trillion by the end of 2010, an increase of 18.7% over the previous year, making its reserves by far the world's largest.[267][268] In 2012, China was the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $253 billion.[269] China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4 billion in 2012,[269] and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies.[270] In 2009, China owned an estimated $1.6 trillion of US securities,[271] and was also the largest foreign holder of US public debt, owning over $1.16 trillion in US Treasury bonds.[272][273] China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies,[181][274][275] and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods.[276][277] Graph comparing the 2013 nominal GDPs of major economies in US$ billions, according to IMF data[278] China ranked 29th in the Global Competitiveness Index in 2009,[279] although it is only ranked 136th among the 179 countries measured in the 2011 Index of Economic Freedom.[280] In 2014, Fortune's Global 500 list of the world's largest corporations included 95 Chinese companies, with combined revenues of US$5.8 trillion.[281] The same year, Forbes reported that five of the world's ten largest public companies were Chinese, including the world's largest bank by total assets, the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China.[282] Class and income equality See also: Income inequality in China China's middle-class population (if defined as those with annual income of between US$10,000 and US$60,000) had reached more than 300 million by 2012.[283] According to the Hurun Report, the number of US dollar billionaires in China increased from 130 in 2009 to 251 in 2012, giving China the world's second-highest number of billionaires.[284][285] China's domestic retail market was worth over 20 trillion yuan (US$3.2 trillion) in 2012[286] and is growing at over 12% annually as of 2013,[287] while the country's luxury goods market has expanded immensely, with 27.5% of the global share.[288] However, in recent years, China's rapid economic growth has contributed to severe consumer inflation,[289][290] leading to increased government regulation.[291] China has a high level of economic inequality,[292] which has increased in the past few decades.[293] In 2012, China's Gini coefficient was 0.474.[294] Internationalization of the renminbi Main article: Internationalization of the renminbi Since 2008 global financial crisis, China realized the dependency of US Dollar and the weakness of the international monetary system.[295] The RMB Internationalization accelerated in 2009 when China established dim sum bond market and expanded the Cross-Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project, which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquidity.[296][297] In November 2010, Russia began using the Chinese renminbi in its bilateral trade with China.[298] This was soon followed by Japan,[299] Australia,[300] Singapore,[301] the United Kingdom,[302] and Canada.[303] As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighth-most-traded currency in the world in 2013.[304] Science and technology Main articles: Science and technology in China and Chinese space program A man in black armor standing in front of a rocket, attached to a stick, with the stick being held up by two X-shaped wooden brackets. History of science and technology in China Inventions Discoveries By era Han dynasty Tang dynasty Song dynasty People's Republic of China (PRC) v t e Historical China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming Dynasty. Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), later became widespread in Asia and Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers.[305][306] However, by the 17th century, the Western world had surpassed China in scientific and technological development.[307] The causes of this Great Divergence continue to be debated.[308] After repeated military defeats by Western nations in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.[309] After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations,[310] and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.[311] Modern era Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific research,[312] with $163 billion spent on scientific research and development (R&D) in 2012.[313] Science and technology are seen as vital for achieving China's economic and political goals, and are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as "techno-nationalism".[314] Despite the increase in research and development spending, the funding system is still not transparent and the proportion of the research budget being spent on basic and applied research is shrinking.[312] In 2011, China devoted 4.7 percent and 11.8 percent of its total R&D budget to basic and applied research respectively, a significantly lower percentage than leading technological powers such as the U.S. and Japan.[315] While Chinese-born scientists have won the Nobel Prize in Physics four times and the Nobel Prize in Chemistry once, these scientists all earned their doctorates and conducted their award-winning research in the West.[o] The launch of a Chinese Long March 3B rocket China is rapidly developing its education system with an emphasis on science, mathematics and engineering; in 2009, it produced over 10,000 Ph.D. engineering graduates, and as many as 500,000 BSc graduates, more than any other country.[320] China is also the world's second-largest publisher of scientific papers, producing 121,500 in 2010 alone, including 5,200 in leading international scientific journals.[321] Chinese technology companies such as Huawei and Lenovo have become world leaders in telecommunications and personal computing,[322][323][324] and Chinese supercomputers are consistently ranked among the world's most powerful.[325][326] China is furthermore experiencing a significant growth in the use of industrial robots; from 2008 to 2011, the installation of multi-role robots in Chinese factories rose by 136 percent.[327] The Chinese space program is one of the world's most active, and is a major source of national pride.[328][329] In 1970, China launched its first satellite, Dong Fang Hong I, becoming the fifth country to do so independently.[330] In 2003, China became the third country to independently send humans into space, with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5; as of 2015, ten Chinese nationals have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China's first space station module, Tiangong-1, was launched, marking the first step in a project to assemble a large manned station by the early 2020s.[331] In 2013, China successfully landed the Chang'e 3 probe and Yutu rover onto the Moon; China plans to collect lunar soil samples by 2017.[332] The 2000s decade and the beginning of the 2010s is also marked by China's transition from light to heavy industry and its focus on manufacturing.[333] Consequently China became the world's largest consumer of iron ore in 2003,[334] and during that time metal prices increased by about 8-fold.[333] Infrastructure Telecommunications Main article: Telecommunications in China China currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country in the world, with over 1 billion users by February 2012.[335] It also has the world's largest number of internet and broadband users,[336] with over 591 million internet users as of 2013, equivalent to around 44% of its population.[337] A 2013 report found that the national average internet connection speed is 3.14 MB/s.[338] As of July 2013, China accounts for 24% of the world's internet-connected devices.[339] China Telecom and China Unicom, the world's two largest broadband providers, accounted for 20% of global broadband subscribers. China Telecom alone serves more than 50 million broadband subscribers, while China Unicom serves more than 40 million.[340] Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying for the Chinese military.[341] China is developing its own satellite navigation system, dubbed Beidou, which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012,[342] and is planned to offer global coverage by 2020.[343] Transport The Baling River Bridge is one of the world's highest Main article: Transport in China Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national highways and expressways. In 2011 China's highways had reached a total length of 85,000 km (53,000 mi), making it the longest highway system in the world.[344] In 1991, there were only six bridges across the main stretch of the Yangtze River, which bisects the country into northern and southern halves. By October 2014, there were 81 such bridges and tunnels. China has the world's largest market for automobiles, having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and production. Auto sales in 2009 exceeded 13.6 million[345] and reach 40 million by 2020.[346] A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents,[347] with poorly enforced traffic laws cited as a possible cause—in 2011 alone, around 62,000 Chinese died in road accidents.[348] In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles - as of 2012, there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China.[349] Terminal 3 of Beijing Capital International Airport is the second largest airport terminal in the world China's railways, which are state-owned, are among the busiest in the world, handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006.[350][351] As of 2013, the country had 103,144 km (64,091 mi) of railways, the third longest network in the world.[352] All provinces and regions are connected to the rail network except Macau. The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the Chinese New Year holiday, when the world's largest annual human migration takes place.[351] In 2013, Chinese railways delivered 2.106 billion passenger trips, generating 1,059.56 billion passenger-kilometers and carried 3.967 billion tons of freight, generating 2,917.4 billion cargo tons-kilometers.[352] China's high-speed rail (HSR) system, built entirely since the early 2000s, had 11,028 kilometres (6,852 miles) of track in 2013 and was the longest HSR network in the world.[353] The network includes the Beijing-Guangzhou-Shenzhen High-Speed Railway, the single longest HSR line in the world, and the Beijing-Shanghai High-Speed Railway, which has three of longest railroad bridges in the world.[354] The HSR track network is set to reach approximately 16,000 km (9,900 mi) by 2020.[355] The Shanghai Maglev Train, which reaches 431 km/h (268 mph), is the fastest commercial train service in the world.[356] The Shanghai Maglev Train As of May 2014, 20 Chinese cities have urban mass transit systems in operation, with a dozen more to join them by 2020.[357] The Shanghai Metro, Beijing Subway, Guangzhou Metro, Hong Kong MTR and Shenzhen Metro are among the longest and busiest in the world. China's indigenous bullet train CRH380A There were 182 commercial airports in China in 2012. With 82 new airports planned to open by 2015, more than two-thirds of the airports under construction worldwide in 2013 were in China,[358] and Boeing expects that China's fleet of active commercial aircraft in China will grow from 1,910 in 2011 to 5,980 in 2031.[358] With rapid expansion in civil aviation, the largest airports in China have also joined the ranks of the busiest in the world. In 2013, Beijing's Capital Airport ranked second in the world by passenger traffic (it was 26th in 2002). Since 2010, the Hong Kong International Airport and Shanghai Pudong International Airport have ranked first and third in air cargo tonnage. Some 80% of China's airspace remains restricted for military use, and Chinese airlines made up eight of the 10 worst-performing Asian airlines in terms of delays.[359] China has over 2,000 river and seaports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping. In 2012, the Ports of Shanghai, Hong Kong, Shenzhen, Ningbo-Zhoushan, Guangzhou, Qingdao, Tianjin, Dalian ranked in the top in the world in in container traffic and cargo tonnage .[360] The Port of Shanghai's deep water harbour on Yangshan Island in the Hangzhou Bay became the world's busiest container port in 2010 Demographics Main article: Demographics of China A 2009 population density map of the People's Republic of China. The eastern coastal provinces are much more densely populated than the western interior The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China as approximately 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59

The Tao Te Ching,[1] Daodejing, or Dao De Jing (simplified Chinese: 道德经; traditional Chinese: 道德經; pinyin: Dàodéjīng), also simply referred to as the Laozi (Chinese: 老子; pinyin: Lǎozǐ),[2][3] is a Chinese classic text. According to tradition, it was written around 6th century BC by the sage Laozi (or Lao Tzu, Chinese: 老子; pinyin: Lǎozǐ, literally meaning "Old Master"), a record-keeper at the Zhou dynasty court, by whose name the text is known in China. The text's true authorship and date of composition or compilation are still debated,[4] although the oldest excavated text dates back to the late 4th century BC.[2] The text, along with the Zhuangzi, is a fundamental text for both philosophical and religious Taoism, and strongly influenced other schools, such as Legalism, Confucianism and Chinese Buddhism, which when first introduced into China was largely interpreted through the use of Daoist words and concepts. Many Chinese artists, including poets, painters, calligraphers, and even gardeners, have used the Daodejing as a source of inspiration. Its influence has also spread widely outside East Asia, and is amongst the most translated works in world literature.[2] The Wade-Giles romanization "Tao Te Ching" dates back to early English transliterations in the late 19th century; its influence can be seen in words and phrases that have become well established in English. "Daodejing" is the pinyin romanization. Contents 1 Text 1.1 Title 1.2 Internal structure 1.3 Historical authenticity of the author 1.4 Principal versions 1.5 Mawangdui and Guodian texts 1.6 Written style 2 Interpretation and themes 2.1 Ineffability of genesis 2.2 Mysterious female 2.3 Returning (union with the Primordial) 2.4 Emptiness 2.5 Knowledge and humility 2.6 Interpretations in relation to religious traditions 3 Translations 3.1 Translational difficulties 4 See also 5 References 6 Bibliography 7 External links 7.1 Online English translations Text The Tao Te Ching has a long and complex textual history. On one hand, there are transmitted versions and commentaries that date back two millennia; on the other, there are ancient bamboo, silk, and paper manuscripts that archeologists discovered in the last century. Title Part of a series on Taoism Taijitu Theories[show] Practices[show] Texts[show] Deities[show] People[show] Schools[show] Holy places[show] Organisations[show] Portal Taoism v t e There are many possible translations of the book's title: Dào/tao literally means "way", or one of its synonyms, but was extended to mean "the Way". This term, which was variously used by other Chinese philosophers (including Confucius, Mencius, Mozi, and Hanfeizi), has special meaning within the context of Taoism, where it implies the essential, unnamable process of the universe. Dé/te means "virtue", "personal character," "inner strength" (virtuosity), or "integrity". The semantics of this Chinese word resemble English virtue, which developed from virtù, a now-archaic sense of "inner potency" or "divine power" (as in "healing virtue of a drug") to the modern meaning of "moral excellence" or "goodness." Compare the compound word taote (Chinese: 道德; pinyin: Dàodé; literally: "ethics", "ethical principles," "morals," or "morality"). Jīng/ching as it is used here means "canon," "great book," or "classic." Thus, Tao Te Ching can be translated as "The Classic/Canon of the Way/Path and the Power/Virtue." The title Daodejing is an honorific given by posterity, other titles include the amalgam Lǎozǐ Dàodéjīng (老子道德經), the honorific Daode Zhen Jing (道德真經 "True Classic of the Way and the Power"), and the Wuqian wen (五千文 "Five thousand character [classic]"). Internal structure The received Tao Te Ching is a short text of around 5,000 Chinese characters in 81 brief chapters or sections (章). There is some evidence that the chapter divisions were later additions - for commentary, or as aids to rote memorization - and that the original text was more fluidly organized. It has two parts, the Tao Ching (道經; chaps. 1-37) and the Te Ching (德經; chaps. 38-81), which may have been edited together into the received text, possibly reversed from an original "Te Tao Ching". The written style is laconic, has few grammatical particles, and encourages varied, even contradictory interpretations. The ideas are singular; the style poetic. The rhetorical style combines two major strategies: short, declarative statements and intentional contradictions. The first of these strategies creates memorable phrases, while the second forces us to create our own reconciliations of the supposed contradictions.[5] The Chinese characters in the original versions were probably written in zhuànshū (篆書 seal script), while later versions were written in lìshū (隸書 clerical script) and kǎishū (楷書 regular script) styles. Daoist Chinese Characters contains a good summary of these different calligraphies. Historical authenticity of the author The Tao Te Ching is ascribed to Laozi, whose historical existence has been a matter of scholastic debate. His name, which means "Old Master", has only fueled controversy on this issue. (Kaltenmark 1969:10). Laozi The first reliable reference to Laozi is his "biography" in Shiji (63, tr. Chan 1963:35-37), by Chinese historian Sima Qian (ca. 145-86 BC), which combines three stories. First, Laozi was a contemporary of Confucius (551-479 BC). His surname was Li (李 "plum"), and his personal name was Er (耳 "ear") or Dan (聃 "long ear"). He was an official in the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West. Second, Laozi was Lao Laizi (老來子 "Old Come Master"), also a contemporary of Confucius, who wrote a book in 15 parts. Third, Laozi was the Grand Historian and astrologer Lao Dan (老聃 "Old Long-ears"), who lived during the reign (384-362 BC) of Duke Xian (獻公) of Qin). Generations of scholars have debated the historicity of Laozi and the dating of the Tao Te Ching. Linguistic studies of the text's vocabulary and rhyme scheme point to a date of composition after the Shi Jing yet before the Zhuangzi. Legends claim variously that Laozi was "born old"; that he lived for 996 years, with twelve previous incarnations starting around the time of the Three Sovereigns before the thirteenth as Laozi. Some Western scholars have expressed doubts over Laozi's historical existence, claiming that the Tao Te Ching is actually a collection of the work of various authors. Many Taoists venerate Laozi as Daotsu the founder of the school of Dao, the Daode Tianjun in the Three Pure Ones, one of the eight elders transformed from Taiji in the Chinese creation myth. Principal versions Among the many transmitted editions of the Tao Te Ching text, the three primary ones are named after early commentaries. The "Yan Zun Version," which is only extant for the Te Ching, derives from a commentary attributed to Han Dynasty scholar Yan Zun (巖尊, fl. 80 BC-10 AD). The "Heshang Gong Version" is named after the legendary Heshang Gong (河上公 "Riverside Sage") who supposedly lived during the reign (202-157 BC) of Emperor Wen of Han. This commentary (tr. Erkes 1950) has a preface written by Ge Xuan (葛玄, 164-244 AD), granduncle of Ge Hong, and scholarship dates this version to around the 3rd century AD. The "Wang Bi Version" has more verifiable origins than either of the above. Wang Bi (王弼, 226-249 AD) was a famous Three Kingdoms period philosopher and commentator on the Tao Te Ching (tr. Lin 1977, Rump and Chan 1979) and the I Ching. Tao Te Ching scholarship has lately advanced from archeological discoveries of manuscripts, some of which are older than any of the received texts. Beginning in the 1920s and 1930s, Marc Aurel Stein and others found thousands of scrolls in the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. They included more than 50 partial and complete "Tao Te Ching" manuscripts. One written by the scribe So/Su Dan (素統) is dated 270 AD and corresponds closely with the Heshang Gong version. Another partial manuscript has the Xiang'er (想爾) commentary, which had previously been lost.[citation needed] Mawangdui and Guodian texts In 1973, archeologists discovered copies of early Chinese books, known as the Mawangdui Silk Texts, in a tomb dating from 168 BC.[2] They included two nearly complete copies of the text, referred to as Text A (甲) and Text B (乙), both of which reverse the traditional ordering and put the Te Ching section before the Tao Ching, which is why the Henricks translation of them is named "Te-Tao Ching". Based on calligraphic styles and imperial naming taboo avoidances, scholars believe that Text A can be dated to about the first decade and Text B to about the third decade of the 2nd century BC.[6] In 1993, the oldest known version of the text, written on bamboo tablets, was found in a tomb near the town of Guodian (郭店) in Jingmen, Hubei, and dated prior to 300 BC.[2] The Guodian Chu Slips comprise about 800 slips of bamboo with a total of over 13,000 characters, about 2,000 of which correspond with the Tao Te Ching, including 14 previously unknown verses. Both the Mawangdui and Guodian versions are generally consistent with the received texts, excepting differences in chapter sequence and graphic variants. Several recent Tao Te Ching translations (e.g., Lau 1989, Henricks 1989, Mair 1990, Henricks 2000, Allan and Williams 2000, and Roberts 2004) utilize these two versions, sometimes with the verses reordered to synthesize the new finds. Written style The Tao Te Ching was originally written in zhuànshū calligraphy style. It is difficult to obtain modern replicas of these styles except through specialty stores. Most modern versions use the newspaper print style kǎishū. Interpretation and themes The passages are ambiguous, and topics range from political advice for rulers to practical wisdom for people. Because the variety of interpretation is virtually limitless, not only for different people but for the same person over time, readers do well to avoid making claims of objectivity or superiority. Also, since the book is 81 short poems, there is little need for an abridgement. Ineffability of genesis The Way that can be told of is not an unvarying way; The names that can be named are not unvarying names. It was from the Nameless that Heaven and Earth sprang; The named is but the mother that rears the ten thousand creatures, each after its kind. (chap. 1, tr. Waley) These famous first lines of the Tao Te Ching state that the Tao is ineffable, i.e., the Tao is nameless, goes beyond distinctions, and transcends language. However this first verse does not occur in the earliest known version from the Guodian Chu Slips and there is speculation that it may have been added by later commentators.[7] In Laozi's Qingjing Jing (verse 1-8) he clarified the term Tao was nominated as he was trying to describe a state of existence before it happened and before time or space. Way or path happened to be the side meaning of Tao, ineffability would be just poetic. This is the Chinese creation myth from the primordial Tao. Mysterious female The Valley Spirit never dies It is named the Mysterious Female. And the doorway of the Mysterious Female Is the base from which Heaven and Earth sprang. It is there within us all the while; Draw upon it as you will; it never runs dry. (chap. 6, tr. Waley) Like the above description of the ineffable Tao as "the mother that rears the ten thousand creatures", the Tao Te Ching advocates "female" (or Yin) values, emphasizing the passive, solid, and quiescent qualities of nature (which is opposed to the active and energetic), and "having without possessing". Waley's translation can also be understood as the Esoteric Feminine in that it can be known intuitively, that must be complemented by the masculine, "male" (or Yang), again amplified in Qingjing Jing (verse 9-13). Yin and Yang should be balanced, "Know masculinity, Maintain femininity, and be a ravine for all under heaven." (chap. 28, tr. Mair) Returning (union with the Primordial) In Tao the only motion is returning. The only useful quality, weakness. For though all creatures under heaven are the products of Being, Being itself is the product of Not-being. " (chap. 40, tr. Waley) Another theme is the eternal return, or what Mair (1990:139) calls "the continual return of the myriad creatures to the cosmic principle from which they arose." There is a contrast between the rigidity of death and the weakness of life: "When he is born, man is soft and weak; in death he becomes stiff and hard. The ten thousand creatures and all plants and trees while they are alive are supple and soft, but when dead they become brittle and dry." (chap. 76, tr. Waley). This is returning to the beginning of things, or to one's own childhood. The Tao Te Ching focuses upon the beginnings of society, and describes a golden age in the past, comparable with the ideas of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Human problems arose from the "invention" of culture and civilization. In this idealized past, "the people should have no use for any form of writing save knotted ropes, should be contented with their food, pleased with their clothing, satisfied with their homes, should take pleasure in their rustic tasks." (chap. 80, tr. Waley) Emptiness We put thirty spokes together and call it a wheel; But it is on the space where there is nothing that the usefulness of the wheel depends. We turn clay to make a vessel; But it is on the space where there is nothing that the usefulness of the vessel depends. We pierce doors and windows to make a house; And it is on these spaces where there is nothing that the usefulness of the house depends. Therefore just as we take advantage of what is, we should recognize the usefulness of what is not. (chap. 11, tr. Waley) Philosophical vacuity is a common theme among Asian philosophical traditions including Taoism (especially Wu wei "effortless action"), Buddhism, and some aspects of Confucianism. One could interpret the Tao Te Ching as a suite of variations on the "Powers of Nothingness". This predates the Buddhist Shunyata philosophy of "form is emptiness, emptiness is form" by half a millennium. Looking at a traditional Chinese Landscape, one can understand how emptiness (the unpainted) has the power of animating the trees, mountains, and rivers it surrounds. Emptiness can mean having no fixed preconceptions, preferences, intentions, or agenda. Since "The Sage has no heart of his own; He uses the heart of the people as his heart." (chap. 49, tr. Waley). From a ruler's point of view, it is a laissez-faire approach: So a wise leader may say: "I practice inaction, and the people look after themselves." But from the Sage it is so hard at any price to get a single word That when his task is accomplished, his work done, Throughout the country every one says: "It happened of its own accord". (chap. 17, tr. Waley) Knowledge and humility Knowing others is wisdom; Knowing the self is enlightenment. Mastering others requires force; Mastering the self requires strength; He who knows he has enough is rich. Perseverance is a sign of will power. He who stays where he is endures. To die but not to perish is to be eternally present. (chap. 33, tr. Feng and English) The Tao Te Ching praises self-gained knowledge with emphasis on that knowledge being gained with humility. When what one person has experienced is put into words and transmitted to others, so doing risks giving unwarranted status to what inevitably must have had a subjective tinge. Moreover, it will be subjected to another layer of interpretation and subjectivity when read and learned by others. This kind of knowledge (or "book learning"), like desire, should be diminished. "It was when intelligence and knowledge appeared that the Great Artifice began." (chap. 18, tr. Waley) And so, "The pursuit of learning is to increase day after day. The pursuit of Tao is to decrease the doing of the self day after day." (chap. 48, tr. W. T. Chan) Interpretations in relation to religious traditions The relation between Taoism and Buddhism and Chan Buddhism is complex and fertile. Similarly, the relationship between Taoism and Confucianism is richly interwoven, historically. Translations The Tao Te Ching has been translated into Western languages over 250 times, mostly to English, German, and French.[8] According to Holmes Welch, "It is a famous puzzle which everyone would like to feel he had solved."[9] Many translations are written by people with a foundation in Chinese language and philosophy who are trying to render the original meaning of the text as faithfully as possible into English. Some of the more popular translations are written from a less scholarly perspective, giving an individual author's interpretation. Critics of these versions, such as Taoism scholar Eugene Eoyang, claim that translators like Stephen Mitchell produce readings of the Tao Te Ching that deviate from the text and are incompatible with the history of Chinese thought.[10] Russell Kirkland goes further to argue that these versions are based on Western Orientalist fantasies, and represent the colonial appropriation of Chinese culture.[11][12] In contrast, Huston Smith, scholar of world religions, said of the Mitchell version, "This translation comes as close to being definitive for our time as any I can imagine. It embodies the virtues its translator credits to the Chinese original: a gemlike lucidity that is radiant with humor, grace, largeheartedness, and deep wisdom." Other Taoism scholars, such as Michael LaFargue[13] and Jonathan Herman,[14] argue that while they are poor scholarship they meet a real spiritual need in the West. These Westernized versions aim to make the wisdom of the Tao Te Ching more accessible to modern English-speaking readers by, typically, employing more familiar cultural and temporal references. Translational difficulties The Tao Te Ching is written in Classical Chinese, which can be difficult to understand completely. Classical Chinese relies heavily on allusion to a corpus of standard literary works to convey semantic meaning, nuance, and subtext. This corpus was memorized by highly educated people in Laozi's time, and the allusions were reinforced through common use in writing, but few people today have this type of deep acquaintance with ancient Chinese literature. Thus, many levels of subtext are potentially lost on modern translators. Furthermore, many of the words that the Tao Te Ching uses are deliberately vague and ambiguous. Since there are no punctuation marks in Classical Chinese, it can be difficult to conclusively determine where one sentence ends and the next begins. Moving a full-stop a few words forward or back or inserting a comma can profoundly alter the meaning of many passages, and such divisions and meanings must be determined by the translator. Some editors and translators argue that the received text is so corrupted (from originally being written on one-line bamboo strips linked with silk threads) that it is impossible to understand some chapters without moving sequences of characters from one place to another.

In Chinese philosophy, yin and yang (also, yin-yang or yin yang) describes how apparently opposite or contrary forces are actually complementary, interconnected, and interdependent in the natural world, and how they give rise to each other as they interrelate to one another. Many tangible dualities (such as light and dark, fire and water, and male and female) are thought of as physical manifestations of the duality of yin and yang. This duality lies at the origins of many branches of classical Chinese science and philosophy, as well as being a primary guideline of traditional Chinese medicine,[1] and a central principle of different forms of Chinese martial arts and exercise, such as baguazhang, taijiquan (t'ai chi), and qigong (Chi Kung), as well as in the pages of the I Ching written in 1,000 BC and before.[2] Yin and yang can be thought of as complementary (rather than opposing) forces that interact to form a dynamic system in which the whole is greater than the assembled parts. Everything has both yin and yang aspects, (for instance shadow cannot exist without light). Either of the two major aspects may manifest more strongly in a particular object, depending on the criterion of the observation. The yin yang shows a balance between two opposites with a little bit in each. In Daoist metaphysics, distinctions between good and bad, along with other dichotomous moral judgments, are perceptual, not real; so, the duality of yin and yang is an indivisible whole. In the ethics of Confucianism on the other hand, most notably in the philosophy of Dong Zhongshu (c. 2nd century BC), a moral dimension is attached to the idea of yin and yang.[3] Contents 1 Linguistic aspects 1.1 Characters 1.2 Pronunciations and etymologies 1.3 Meanings 1.4 Toponymy 1.5 Loanwords 2 Nature 3 Symbolism and importance 3.1 I Ching 3.2 Taijitu 3.3 Taijiquan 4 See also 5 References 6 External links Linguistic aspects The Chinese terms yīn 陰 or 阴 "shady side" and yáng 陽 or 阳 "sunny side" are linguistically analyzable in terms of Chinese characters, pronunciations and etymology, meanings, topography, and loanwords. Characters The Traditional Chinese characters 陰 and 陽 for the words yin and yang are both classified as radical-phonetic characters, combining the semantically significant "mound; hill" radical 阝 or 阜 with the phonetic indicators yin 侌 and yang 昜. The first phonetic yin 侌 "cloudy" ideographically combines jin 今 "now; present" and yun 云 "cloud", denoting the "今 presence of 云 clouds".[4] The second phonetic yang 昜 "bright" originally pictured 日 the "sun" with 勿 "rays coming down".[5] This phonetic is expanded with the "sun" radical into yang 暘 "rising sun; sunshine". The "mound; hill" radical 阝full forms semantically specify yin 陰 "shady/dark side of a hill" and yang 陽 "sunny/light side of a hill". The Simplified Chinese characters 阴 and 阳 for yin and yang combine the same "hill" radical 阝 with the non-phonetic yue 月 "moon" and ri 日 "sun", graphically denoting "shady side of a hill" and "sunny side of a hill". Compare the Classical Chinese names (which contain tai 太 "great") for these 2 heavenly bodies: Taiyin 太陰 "moon" and Taiyang 太陽 "sun". Pronunciations and etymologies The Modern Standard Chinese pronunciation of 陰 or 阴 is usually level first tone yīn "shady; cloudy" or sometimes falling fourth tone yìn "to shelter; shade", and 陽 or 阳 "sunny" is always pronounced with rising second tone yáng. Sinologists and historical linguists have reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciations from data in the (7th century CE) Qieyun rime dictionary and later rime tables, which was subsequently used to reconstruct Old Chinese phonology from rimes in the (11th-7th centuries BCE) Shijing and phonological components of Chinese characters. Reconstructions of Old Chinese have illuminated the etymology of modern Chinese words. Compare these Middle Chinese and Old Chinese (with asterisk) reconstructions of yīn 陰 and yáng 陽: ˑiəm < *ˑiəm and iang < *diang (Bernhard Karlgren)[6] *ʔjəm and *raŋ (Li Fang-Kuei)[7] ʔ(r)jum and *ljang (William H. Baxter),[8] ʔjəm < *ʔəm and jiaŋ < *laŋ (Axel Schuessler)[9] 'im < *qrum and yang < *laŋ (William H. Baxter and Laurent Sagart)[10] Schuessler gives probable Sino-Tibetan etymologies for both Chinese words. Yin < *ʔəm compares with Burmese ʔumC "overcast; cloudy", Adi muk-jum "shade", and Lepcha so'yǔm "shade"; and is probably cognate with Chinese àn < *ʔə̂mʔ 黯 "dim; gloomy" and qīn < *khəm 衾 "blanket" Yang < *laŋ compares with Lepcha a-lóŋ "reflecting light", Burmese laŋB "be bright" and ə-laŋB "light", and Tai plaŋA1 "bright"; and is perhaps cognate with Chinese chāng < *k-hlaŋ 昌 "prosperous; bright" (cf. Proto-Viet-Mong hlaŋB "bright"), and bǐng < *braŋʔ 炳 "bright". Meanings Yin and yang are semantically complex words. A reliable Chinese-English dictionary gives the following translation equivalents.[11] Yin 陰 or 阴 Noun ① [philosophy] negative/passive/female principle in nature ② Surname Bound morpheme ① the moon ② shaded orientation ③ covert; concealed; hidden ④ vagina ⑤ penis ⑥ of the netherworld ⑦ negative ⑧ north side of a hill ⑨ south bank of a river ⑩ reverse side of a stele ⑪in intaglio Stative verb ① overcast ② sinister; treacherous Yang 陽 or 阳 Bound morpheme ① [Chinese philosophy] positive/active/male principle in nature ②the sun ③ male genitals ④ in relief ⑤ open; overt ⑥ belonging to this world ⑦ [linguistics] masculine ⑧ south side of a hill ⑨ north bank of a river The compound yinyang 陰陽 or 阴阳 means "yin and yang; opposites; ancient Chinese astronomy; occult arts; astrologer; geomancer; etc.". Chinese yin and yang correspond to English geography terms ubac, "shady side of a mountain", and adret, "sunny side of a mountain", respectively. Toponymy Many Chinese place names or toponyms contain the word yang "sunny side" and a few contain yin "shady side". In China, as elsewhere in the Northern Hemisphere, sunlight comes predominantly from the south, and thus the south face of a mountain or the north bank of a river will receive more direct sunlight than the opposite side. Yang refers to the "south side of a hill" in Hengyang 衡陽, which is south of Mount Heng 衡山 in Hunan province, and to the "north bank of a river" in Luoyang 洛陽, which is located north of the Luo River 洛河 in Henan. Similarly, yin refers to "north side of a hill" in Huayin 華陰, which is north of Mount Hua 華山 in Shaanxi province. Loanwords English yin, yang, and yin-yang are familiar loanwords of Chinese origin. The Oxford English Dictionary defines: yin (jɪn) Also Yin, Yn. [Chinese yīn shade, feminine; the moon.] a. In Chinese philosophy, the feminine or negative principle (characterized by dark, wetness, cold, passivity, disintegration, etc.) of the two opposing cosmic forces into which creative energy divides and whose fusion in physical matter brings the phenomenal world into being. Also attrib. or as adj., and transf. Cf. yang. b. Comb., as yin-yang, the combination or fusion of the two cosmic forces; freq. attrib., esp. as yin-yang symbol, a circle divided by an S-shaped line into a dark and a light segment, representing respectively yin and yang, each containing a 'seed' of the other. yang (jæŋ) Also Yang. [Chinese yáng yang, sun, positive, male genitals.] a. In Chinese philosophy, the masculine or positive principle (characterized by light, warmth, dryness, activity, etc.) of the two opposing cosmic forces into which creative energy divides and whose fusion in physical matter brings the phenomenal world into being. Also attrib. or as adj. Cf. yin. b. Comb.: yang-yin = yin-yang s.v. yin b. For the earliest recorded "yin and yang" usages, the OED cites 1671 for yin and yang,[12] 1850 for yin-yang,[13] and 1959 for yang-yin.[14] In English, yang-yin (like ying-yang) occasionally occurs as a mistake or typographical error for the Chinese loanword yin-yang— yet they are not equivalents. Chinese does have some yangyin collocations, such as 洋銀 (lit. "foreign silver") "silver coin/dollar", but not even the most comprehensive dictionaries (e.g., the Hanyu Da Cidian) enter yangyin *陽陰. While yang and yin can occur together in context,[15] yangyin is not synonymous with yinyang. The linguistic term "irreversible binomial" refers to a collocation of two words A-B that cannot normally be reversed as B-A, for example, English cat and mouse (not *mouse and cat) and friend or foe (not *foe or friend). Similarly, the usual pattern among Chinese binomial compounds is for positive A and negative B, where the A word is dominant or privileged over B, for example, tiandi 天地 "heaven and earth" and nannü 男女 "men and women". Yinyang meaning "dark and light; female and male; moon and sun", however, is an exception. Scholars have proposed various explanations for why yinyang violates this pattern, including "linguistic convenience" (it is easier to say yinyang than yangyin), the idea that "proto-Chinese society was matriarchal", or perhaps, since yinyang first became prominent during the late Warring States period, this term was "purposely directed at challenging persistent cultural assumptions".[16] Nature In Daoist philosophy, dark and light, yin and yang, arrive in the Dàodéjīng (道德經) at chapter 42.[17] It becomes sensible from an initial quiescence or emptiness (wuji, sometimes symbolized by an empty circle), and continues moving until quiescence is reached again. For instance, dropping a stone in a calm pool of water will simultaneously raise waves and lower troughs between them, and[citation needed] this alternation of high and low points in the water will radiate outward until the movement dissipates and the pool is calm once more. Yin and yang thus are always opposite and equal qualities. Further, whenever one quality reaches its peak, it will naturally begin to transform into the opposite quality: for example, grain that reaches its full height in summer (fully yang) will produce seeds and die back in winter (fully yin) in an endless cycle. It is impossible to talk about yin or yang without some reference to the opposite, since yin and yang are bound together as parts of a mutual whole (for example, there cannot be the bottom of the foot without the top). A way to illustrate this idea is[citation needed] to postulate the notion of a race with only men or only women; this race would disappear in a single generation. Yet, men and women together create new generations that allow the race they mutually create (and mutually come from) to survive. The interaction of the two gives birth to things, like manhood.[18] Yin and yang transform each other: like an undertow in the ocean, every advance is complemented by a retreat, and every rise transforms into a fall. Thus, a seed will sprout from the earth and grow upwards towards the sky—an intrinsically yang movement. Then, when it reaches its full potential height, it will fall. Also, the growth of the top seeks light, while roots grow in darkness. Symbolism and importance Yin is the black side with the white dot in it, and yang is the white side with the black dot in it. The relationship between yin and yang is often described in terms of sunlight playing over a mountain and a valley. Yin (literally the 'shady place' or 'north slope') is the dark area occluded by the mountain's bulk, while yang (literally the 'sunny place' or 'south slope') is the brightly lit portion. As the sun moves across the sky, yin and yang gradually trade places with each other, revealing what was obscured and obscuring what was revealed. Yin is characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive; and is associated with water, earth, the moon, femininity, and nighttime. Yang, by contrast, is fast, hard, solid, focused, hot, dry, and aggressive; and is associated with fire, sky, the sun, masculinity and daytime.[19] Yin and yang applies to the human body. In traditional Chinese medicine good health is directly related to the balance between yin and yang qualities within oneself.[20] If yin and yang become unbalanced, one of the qualities is considered deficient or has vacuity. I Ching In the I Ching (1,000 BC and before),[2] yin and yang are represented by broken and solid lines: yin is broken (⚋) and yang is solid (⚊). These are then combined into trigrams, which are more yang (e.g. ☱) or more yin (e.g. ☵) depending on the number of broken and solid lines (e.g., ☰ is heavily yang, while ☷ is heavily yin), and trigrams are combined into hexagrams (e.g. ䷕ and ䷟). The relative positions and numbers of yin and yang lines within the trigrams determines the meaning of a trigram, and in hexagrams the upper trigram is considered yang with respect to the lower trigram, yin, which allows for complex depictions of interrelations. Taijitu Main article: Taijitu The principle of yin and yang is represented in Taoism by the Taijitu (literally "diagram of the supreme ultimate"). The term is commonly used to mean the simple "divided circle" form, but may refer to any of several schematic diagrams representing these principles, such as the swastika, common to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Similar symbols have also appeared in other cultures, such as in Celtic art and Roman shield markings.[21][22][23] Taijiquan Taijiquan, a form of martial art, is often described as the principles of yin and yang applied to the human body and an animal body. Wu Jianquan, a famous Chinese martial arts teacher, described Taijiquan as follows: Various people have offered different explanations for the name Taijiquan. Some have said: - 'In terms of self-cultivation, one must train from a state of movement towards a state of stillness. Taiji comes about through the balance of yin and yang. In terms of the art of attack and defense then, in the context of the changes of full and empty, one is constantly internally latent, to not outwardly expressive, as if the yin and yang of Taiji have not yet divided apart.' Others say: 'Every movement of Taijiquan is based on circles, just like the shape of a Taijitu. Therefore, it is called Taijiquan. — Wu Jianquan, The International Magazine of T'ai Chi Ch'uan[24]

The Three Jewels, also called the Three Treasures, Three Refuges, Precious Triad, or most commonly the Triple Gem Pali: Tiratana, Sanskrit: त्रिरत्न (triratna), are the three things that Buddhists take refuge in, and look toward for guidance, in the process known as taking refuge. The Three Jewels are:[1] Buddha Sanskrit, Pali: The Enlightened or Awakened One; Chinese: 佛陀, Fótuó, Japanese: 仏, Butsu, Standard Tibetan: sangs-rgyas, Mongolian: burqan Depending on one's interpretation, it can mean the historical Buddha (Siddharta) or the Buddha nature — the ideal or highest spiritual potential that exists within all beings; Dharma Sanskrit: The Teaching; Pali: Dhamma, Chinese: 法, Fǎ, Japanese: 法, Hō, Standard Tibetan: chos, Mongolian: nom The teachings of the Buddha, the path to Enlightenment. Sangha Sanskrit, Pali: The Community; Chinese: 僧, Sēng, Japanese: 僧, Sō, Standard Tibetan: dge-'dun, Mongolian: quvara The community of those who have attained enlightenment, who may help a practicing Buddhist to do the same. Also used more broadly to refer to the community of practicing Buddhists, or the community of Buddhist monks and nuns.[2] Contents 1 Refuge formula 2 Importance 3 Explication 4 Tibetan Buddhism 5 History 5.1 Diamond Mind 5.2 Ratana-sutta 5.3 Jainism and Taoism 6 Art 6.1 Coins 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links Refuge formula Taking refuge in the Three Jewels is central to Buddhist lay and monastic ordination ceremonies, as originated by Gautama, (The Buddha), according to the scriptures. The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned[3] in the Majjhima Nikaya, recognized by most scholars as an early text. Taking refuge in the Three Jewels is generally considered to make one officially a Buddhist. Thus, in many Theravada Buddhist communities, the following Pali chant, the Vandana Ti-sarana is often recited by both monks and lay people: Buddham saranam gacchāmi I go for refuge in the Buddha. Dhammam saranam gacchāmi I go for refuge in the Dharma. Sangham saranam gacchāmi I go for refuge in the Sangha The Burmese Pali version, which differs from traditional Pali pronunciation (to suit the Burmese language phonology), is as follows (in the Burmese script and IPA): 1ဗုဒ္ဓံ သရဏံ ဂစ္ဆာမိ။ IPA: [boʊʔdàɴ θəɹənàɴ ɡɪʔsʰàmḭ] I go for refuge in the Buddha. 1ဓမ္မံ သရဏံ ဂစ္ဆာမိ။ IPA: [dàɴmàɴ θəɹənàɴ ɡɪʔsʰàmḭ] I go for refuge in the Dharma. 1သံဃံ သရဏံ ဂစ္ဆာမိ။ IPA: [θàɴɡàɴ θəɹənàɴ ɡɪʔsʰàmḭ] I go for refuge in the Sangha 1ဒုတိယမ္ပိ ([dṵtḭjàɴpḭ]) and တတိယမ္ပိ ([ta̰tḭjàɴpḭ]) are prefixed to the chant when lay members seek the refuge for the second and third times respectively. The Cambodian version, or បទសរភញ្ញ (EN: Bot Sa-Rak-Phorgn), was written by Samdech Sangha Raja Jhotañano Chuon Nath with greater descriptions of the Three Jewels with Cambodian touch at the ending.[4] ១.សូមថ្វាយបង្គំព្រះសម្ពុទ្ធ ប្រសើរបំផុតក្នុងលោកា ជាគ្រូនៃមនុស្ស និងទេវតា ទ្រង់ត្រាស់ទេសនាប្រដៅសត្វ។ I go for refuge in the Buddha, the Greatest in the world, the Guru of human beings and Devada, who was Enlightened and a Teacher to men. ចង្អុលឲ្យដើរផ្លូវកណ្តាល មាគ៌ាត្រកាលអាចកំចាត់ ទុក្ខភ័យចង្រៃអោយខ្ចាយបាត់ អាចកាត់សង្សារទុក្ខបាន។ Guiding the right central path, the way that can eliminate all the sufferings. ២.សាសនាព្រះអង្គនៅសព្វថ្ងៃ សត្វមាននិស្ស័យពីបុរាណ ប្រឹងរៀនប្រឹងស្តាប់ចេះចាំបាន កាន់តាមលំអានបានក្តីសុខ។ His teaching nowadays, men with destiny from the past trying to learn and listen, and practice for happiness. ឥតមានសុខណាស្មើក្តីស្ងប់ បញ្ចប់ត្រឹមសុខឃ្លាតចាកទុក្ខ តាំងពីលោកនេះតទៅមុខ ក្តីសុខនឹងមានព្រោះធម៌ស្ងប់។ No such happiness that is genuine as the one that is free from sufferings, from this world now on, the happiness prevails because of the Dharma. ៣.ខ្ញុំសូមបង្គំឆ្ពោះព្រះធម៌ ព្រះសង្ឃបវរទាំងសព្វគ្រប់ រួមជាត្រៃរ័ត្នគួរគោរព ជាម្លប់ត្រជាក់នៃលោកា I go for refuge in the Dharma and the Sangha, all combined as the Triple Jewels, the cold shade of the world. ព្រះរូបព្រះធាតុនៃព្រះពុទ្ធ វិសុទ្ធតាងអង្គព្រះសាស្តា សូមគុណត្រៃរត័្នជួយខេមរា ឲ្យបានសុខាតរៀងទៅ ៕ May the Triple Jewels guide Cambodia (and its people) to happiness forever. The Mahayana Chinese/Korean/Japanese version differs only slightly from the Theravada: 自皈依佛，當願眾生，體解大道，發無上心。 I take refuge in the Buddha, wishing for all sentient beings to understand the great Way profoundly and make the greatest resolve. 自皈依法，當願眾生，深入經藏，智慧如海。 I take refuge in the Dharma, wishing for all sentient beings to delve deeply into the Sutra Pitaka, causing their wisdom to be as broad as the sea. 自皈依僧，當願眾生，統理大眾，一切無礙。 I take refuge in the Sangha, wishing all sentient beings to lead the congregation in harmony, entirely without obstruction. The prayer for taking refuge in Tibetan Buddhism. སངས་རྒྱས་ཆོས་དང་ཚོགས་ཀྱི་མཆོག་རྣམས་ལ། Sang-gye cho-dang tsog-kyi cho-nam-la I take refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha 諸佛正法眾中尊 བྱང་ཆུབ་བར་དུ་བདག་ནི་སྐྱབས་སུ་མཆི། Jang-chub bar-du dag-ni kyab-su-chi Until I attain enlightenment. 直至菩提我歸依 བདག་གིས་སྦྱིན་སོགས་བགྱིས་པའི་བསོད་ནམས་ཀྱིས། Dag-gi jin-sog gyi-pe so-nam-kyi By the merit I have accumulated from practising generosity and the other perfections 我以所行施等善 འགྲོ་ལ་ཕན་ཕྱིར་སངས་རྒྱས་འགྲྲུབ་པར་ཤོག །། Dro-la pan-chir sang-gye drub-par-shog May I attain enlightenment, for the benefit of all migrators. 為利眾生願成佛 Importance The Triple Gem is in the center of one of the major practices of mental "reflection" in Buddhism; the reflection on the true qualities of the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. These qualities are called the Mirror of the Dharma in the Mahaparinibbana Sutta and help the practitioner attain the true "mind like a mirror". In the commentary on the Apannaka Jataka Buddha declares: Disciples, nowhere between the lowest of hells below and the highest heaven above, nowhere in all the infinite worlds that stretch right and left, is there the equal, much less the superior, of a Buddha. Incalculable is the excellence which springs from obeying the Precepts and from other virtuous conduct. By taking refuge in the Triple Gem, one escapes from rebirth in states of suffering. In forsaking such a refuge as this, you have certainly erred. In the past, too, men who foolishly mistook what was no refuge for a real refuge, met disaster. Explication Amaravati Triratna symbols. The qualities of the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha are frequently repeated in the ancient texts and are called "Mirror of the Dhamma" or "Dhamma Adassa". The Buddha "The Blessed One is an Arahant, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in true knowledge and conduct, fortunate, knower of the world, unsurpassed leader of persons to be tamed, teacher of devas and humans, the Enlightened One, the Blessed One."[5] In some traditions the Buddha as refuge is taken to refer to the historical Buddha and also 'the full development of mind', in other words, the full development of one's highest potential, i.e. recognition of mind and the completion or full development of one's inherent qualities and activities. The Dharma "The Dhamma is well expounded by the Blessed One, directly visible, immediate (eternal or not subject to time), inviting one to come and see, applicable, to be personally experienced by the wise."[5] Refuge in the Dharma, in the Vajrayana, tradition includes reference not only to the words of the Buddha, but to the living experience of realization and teachings of fully realized practitioners. In Tibetan Buddhism, it includes both the Kangyur (the teaching of the Buddha) and the Tengyur (the commentaries by realized practitioners) and in an intangible way also includes the living transmission of those masters, which can also be very inspiring. The Sangha "The Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples is practising the good way, practising the straight way, practising the true way, practising the proper way; that is, the four pairs of persons, the eight types of individuals - This Sangha of the Blessed One's disciples is worthy of gifts, worthy of hospitality, worthy of offerings, worthy of reverential salutation, the unsurpassed field of merit for the world."[5] In the Vajrayana, a more liberal definition of Sangha can include all practitioners who are actively using the Buddha's teachings to benefit themselves and/or others.[citation needed] It can be more strictly defined as the 'Realized Sangha' or 'Arya-Sangha', in other words, practitioners and historical students of the Buddha who have fully realized the nature of their mind, also known as realized Boddhisatvas; and 'Ordinary Sangha', which can loosely mean practitioners and students of the Buddha who are using the same methods and working towards the same goal. Tibetan Buddhism Main article: Three Roots Threejewels.svg In Tibetan Buddhism there are three refuge formulations, the Outer, Inner and Secret forms of the Three Jewels. The 'Outer' form is the 'Triple Gem', (Sanskrit:triratna), the 'Inner' is the Three Roots and the 'Secret' form is the 'Three Bodies' or trikaya of a Buddha. These alternative refuge formulations are employed by those undertaking Deity Yoga and other tantric practices within the Tibetan Buddhist Vajrayana tradition as a means of recognizing Buddha Nature. Tibetan Buddhist Refuge Formulations Outer or 'Three Jewels' Buddha Dharma Sangha Inner or 'Three Roots' Lama (Guru) Yidam (Ista-devata) Khandroma (Dakini)[6] Secret or 'Trikaya' Dharmakaya Sambhogakaya Nirmanakaya Three Vajras Mind Speech Body seed syllable blue hum red ah white om History The Triratna or "Three Jewels" symbol, on a Buddha footprint (bottom symbol, the top symbol being a dharmachakra). 1st century CE, Gandhara. The three gems are called this because of their treasured value to Buddhists, as well as their indestructible and unchanging nature. The Three Gems when used in the process of taking refuge, become the Three Refuges. In this form, the metaphors occur very frequently in the ancient Buddhist Texts, and here the Sangha is used more broadly to refer to either the Sangha of Bhikkhus, or the Sangha of Bhikkhunis. I go to Master Gautama for refuge and to the Dhamma, and to the Sangha of Bhikkhus. —[7] Diamond Mind Buddha's mind in his earth body or nirmanakaya is frequently associated with the greatest gem of all, the diamond, the hardest natural substance. In the Anguttara Nikaya(3:25), Buddha talks about the diamond mind which can cut through all delusion. Ratana-sutta The expression Three Gems are found in the earliest Buddhist literature of the Pali Canon, besides other works there is one sutta in the Sutta-nipata, called the Ratana-sutta[8] which contains a series of verses on the Jewels in the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. In the Ratana-sutta, all the qualities of the Sangha mentioned are attributes of the Buddha's enlightened disciples: One who is irascible and very irritable, displaying anger, hatred and sulkiness; such a one is said to be a person with a mind like an open sore. One who understands the Four Noble Truths correctly is said to have a mind like a flash of lightning. One who has destroyed the mind-intoxicating defilements and realized the liberation of mind and the liberation by knowledge is said to have a mind like a diamond Jainism and Taoism Main article: Ratnatraya Jainism and Taoism also use "three jewels" metaphorically. When Buddhism was introduced into China, ratnatraya was translated as sanbao (Chinese: 三寶; pinyin: sānbǎo; Wade-Giles: san-pao; literally: "three jewels/treasures"), a term that first occurred in the Tao Te Ching. In his analysis of the Tao Te Ching, Victor H. Mair notes[9] that the jewel metaphor was already widely used in Indian religious metaphor before the Tao Te Ching was written. In Jainism too, For the Jains, the Three Jewels are a metaphor for describing conduct and knowledge: samyag-darśana (correct perception or insight) samyag-jñāna (correct knowledge) samyag-cāritra (correct conduct). Art The compound Buddhist symbols: Shrivatsa within a triratana, over a Dharmacakra wheel, on the Torana gate at Sanchi. 1st century BCE. The Three Jewels are also symbolized by the triratna, composed of (from bottom to top): A lotus flower within a circle. A diamond rod, or vajra. An ananda-chakra. A trident, or trisula, with three branches, representing the threefold jewels of Buddhism: Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha. On representations of the footprint of the Buddha, the Triratna is usually also surmounted by the Dharma wheel. The Triratna can be found on frieze sculptures at Sanchi as the symbol crowning a flag standard (2nd century BCE), as a symbol of the Buddha installed on the Buddha's throne (2nd century BCE), as the crowning decorative symbol on the later gates at the stupa in Sanchi (2nd century CE), or, very often on the Buddha footprint (starting from the 1st century CE). The triratna can be further reinforced by being surmounted with three dharma wheels (one for each of the three jewels of Buddhism: the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha). The triratna symbol is also called nandipada, or "bull's hoof", by Hindus. Coins There are a number of examples of the triratna symbol appearing on historical coins of Buddhist kingdoms in the Indian sub-continent. For example, the Triratna appears on the 1st century BCE coins of the Kingdom of Kuninda in the northern Punjab. It also surmounts the depictions of stupas, on some the coins of the Indo-Parthian king Abdagases of the 1st century, CE and on the coins of some of the Kushan kings such as Vima Kadphises, also of the 1st century CE. Triratna symbol on the reverse (left field) of a coin of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II (r.c. 35-12 BCE). 2nd century BCE coin of the Kunindas, incorporating on the reverse the Buddhist triratna symbol on top of a stupa.

In traditional Chinese culture, qi (more precisely qì, also chi, ch'i or ki) is an active principle forming part of any living thing.[1][2][3] Qi is frequently translated as "natural energy", "life force", or "energy flow". Qi is the central underlying principle in traditional Chinese medicine and martial arts. The literal translation of "qi" is "breath", "air", or "gas".[4] Concepts similar to qi can be found in many cultures, for example, prana in the Hindu religion, pneuma in ancient Greece, mana in Hawaiian culture, lüng in Tibetan Buddhism, ruah in Hebrew culture, and vital energy in Western philosophy. Some elements of qi can be understood in the term energy when used by writers and practitioners of various esoteric forms of spirituality and alternative medicine. Elements of the qi concept can also be found in Western popular culture, for example "The Force" in Star Wars.[5] Notions in the West of energeia, élan vital, or "vitalism" are purported to be similar.[6] Contents 1 Etymology 2 Definition 3 Pronunciation 4 Philosophical roots 5 Role in traditional Chinese medicine 6 Qi field 7 Scientific view 8 Practices involving qi 8.1 Feng shui 8.2 Qigong 8.3 Martial arts 8.4 Acupuncture and moxibustion 8.5 Taoist sexual practices 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Etymology The etymological explanation for the form of the qi logogram (or chi) in the traditional form 氣 is "steam (气) rising from rice (米) as it cooks". The earliest way of writing qi consisted of three wavy lines, used to represent one's breath seen on a cold day. A later version, 气, identical to the present-day simplified character, is a stylized version of those same three lines. For some reason, early writers of Chinese found it desirable to substitute for 气 a cognate character that originally meant to feed other people in a social context such as providing food for guests.[citation needed] Appropriately, that character combined the three-line qi character with the character for rice. So 气 plus 米 formed 氣, and that is the Traditional Chinese character still used today (the oracle bone character, the seal script character and the modern "school standard" or Kǎi shū characters in the box at the right show three stages of the evolution of this character).[7] Definition This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2012) References to concepts analogous to the qi taken to be the life-process or flow of energy that sustains living beings are found in many belief systems, especially in Asia. Philosophical conceptions of qi from the earliest records of Chinese philosophy (5th century BCE) correspond to Western notions of humours and the ancient Hindu yogic concept of prana ("life force" in Sanskrit). An early form of the idea comes from the writings of the Chinese philosopher Mencius (4th century BCE). Historically, the Huangdi Neijing/"The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Medicine" (circa 2nd century BCE) is credited with first establishing the pathways through which qi circulates in the human body.[8][9] Within the framework of Chinese thought, no notion may attain such a degree of abstraction from empirical data as to correspond perfectly to one of our modern universal concepts. Nevertheless, the term qi comes as close as possible to constituting a generic designation equivalent to our word "energy". When Chinese thinkers are unwilling or unable to fix the quality of an energetic phenomenon, the character qi (氣) inevitably flows from their brushes. — Manfred Porkert[10] Traditional Chinese character qì, also used in Korean hanja. In Japanese kanji, this character was used until 1946, when it was changed to 気. The ancient Chinese described it as "life force". They believed qi permeated everything and linked their surroundings together. They likened it to the flow of energy around and through the body, forming a cohesive and functioning unit.[citation needed] By understanding its rhythm and flow they believed they could guide exercises and treatments to provide stability and longevity.[citation needed] Although the concept of qi has been important within many Chinese philosophies, over the centuries the descriptions of qi have varied and have sometimes been in conflict.[citation needed] Until China came into contact with Western scientific and philosophical ideas, they had not categorized all things in terms of matter and energy.[citation needed] Qi and li (理: "pattern") were 'fundamental' categories similar to matter and energy.[citation needed] Fairly early on, some Chinese thinkers began to believe that there were different fractions of qi and that the coarsest and heaviest fractions of qi formed solids, lighter fractions formed liquids, and the most ethereal fractions were the "lifebreath" that animates living beings.[11] Yuán qì is a notion of innate or pre-natal qi to distinguish it from acquired qi that a person may develop over the course of their lifetime. Pronunciation Other spellings include in simplified Chinese: 气; traditional Chinese: 氣; pinyin: qì; Wade-Giles: ch'i; Jyutping: hei, Qi is pronounced /ˈtʃiː/ in English and [tɕʰî] in Standard Chinese; Korean: gi; Japanese: ki; Vietnamese: khí, (pronounced [xǐ]) The approximate English pronunciation of qi, similar to "chee" in cheese, should also be distinguished from the pronunciation of the Greek letter chi (χ), which in Modern Greek is a voiceless velar fricative ([x]), as in the German ach. Philosophical roots The earliest texts that speak of qi give some indications of how the concept developed. The philosopher Mo Di used the word qi to refer to noxious vapors that would in due time arise from a corpse were it not buried at a sufficient depth.[12] He reported that early civilized humans learned how to live in houses to protect their qi from the moisture that had troubled them when they lived in caves.[13] He also associated maintaining one's qi with providing oneself adequate nutrition.[14] In regard to another kind of qi, he recorded how some people performed a kind of prognostication by observing the qi (clouds) in the sky.[15] In the Analects of Confucius, compiled from the notes of his students sometime after his death in 479 B.C., qi could mean "breath",[16] and combining it with the Chinese word for blood (making 血氣, xue-qi, blood and breath), the concept could be used to account for motivational characteristics. The [morally] noble man guards himself against 3 things. When he is young, his xue-qi has not yet stabilized, so he guards himself against sexual passion. When he reaches his prime, his xue-qi is not easily subdued, so he guards himself against combativeness. When he reaches old age, his xue-qi is already depleted, so he guards himself against acquisitiveness. — Confucius, Analects, 16:7 Mencius described a kind of qi that might be characterized as an individual's vital energies. This qi was necessary to activity and it could be controlled by a well-integrated willpower.[17] When properly nurtured, this qi was said to be capable of extending beyond the human body to reach throughout the universe.[17] It could also be augmented by means of careful exercise of one's moral capacities.[17] On the other hand, the qi of an individual could be degraded by adverse external forces that succeed in operating on that individual.[18] Not only human beings and animals were believed to have qi. Zhuangzi indicated that wind is the qi of the Earth.[19] Moreover, cosmic yin and yang "are the greatest of qi."[20] He described qi as "issuing forth" and creating profound effects.[21] He said "Human beings are born [because of] the accumulation of qi. When it accumulates there is life. When it dissipates there is death... There is one qi that connects and pervades everything in the world."[22] Another passage traces life to intercourse between Heaven and Earth: "The highest Yin is the most restrained. The highest Yang is the most exuberant. The restrained comes forth from Heaven. The exuberant issues forth from Earth. The two intertwine and penetrate forming a harmony, and [as a result] things are born."[23] "The Guanzi essay Neiye 內業 (Inward training) is the oldest received writing on the subject of the cultivation of vapor [qi] and meditation techniques. The essay was probably composed at the Jixia Academy in Qi in the late fourth century B.C."[24] Xun Zi, another Confucian scholar of the Jixia Academy, followed in later years. At 9:69/127, Xun Zi says, "Fire and water have qi but do not have life. Grasses and trees have life but do not have perceptivity. Fowl and beasts have perceptivity but do not have yi (sense of right and wrong, duty, justice). Men have qi, life, perceptivity, and yi." Chinese people at such an early time had no concept of radiant energy, but they were aware that one can be heated by a campfire from a distance away from the fire. They accounted for this phenomenon by claiming "qi" radiated from fire. At 18:62/122, he also uses "qi" to refer to the vital forces of the body that decline with advanced age. Among the animals, the gibbon and the crane were considered experts at inhaling the qi. The Confucian scholar Dong Zhongshu (ca. 150 BC) wrote in Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals:[25] "The gibbon resembles a macaque, but he is larger, and his color is black. His forearms being long, he lives eight hundred years, because he is expert in controlling his breathing." ("猿似猴。大而黑。長前臂。所以壽八百。好引氣也。") Later, the syncretic text assembled under the direction of Liu An, the Huai Nan Zi, or "Masters of Huainan", has a passage that presages most of what is given greater detail by the Neo-Confucians: Heaven (seen here as the ultimate source of all being) falls (duo 墮, i.e., descends into proto-immanence) as the formless. Fleeting, fluttering, penetrating, amorphous it is, and so it is called the Supreme Luminary. The dao begins in the Void Brightening. The Void Brightening produces the universe (yu-zhou). The universe produces qi. Qi has bounds. The clear, yang [qi] was ethereal and so formed heaven. The heavy, turbid [qi] was congealed and impeded and so formed earth. The conjunction of the clear, yang [qi] was fluid and easy. The conjunction of the heavy, turbid [qi] was strained and difficult. So heaven was formed first and earth was made fast later. The pervading essence (xi-jing) of heaven and earth becomes yin and yang. The concentrated (zhuan) essences of yin and yang become the four seasons. The dispersed (san) essences of the four seasons become the myriad creatures. The hot qi of yang in accumulating produces fire. The essence (jing) of the fire-qi becomes the sun. The cold qi of yin in accumulating produces water. The essence of the water-qi becomes the moon. The essences produced by coitus (yin) of the sun and moon become the stars and celestial markpoints (chen, planets). —Huai-nan-zi, 3:1a/19 Role in traditional Chinese medicine Further information: Traditional Chinese medicine and Acupuncture Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) asserts that the body has natural patterns of qi that circulate in channels called meridians.[26] In TCM, symptoms of various illnesses are believed to be the product of disrupted, blocked, or unbalanced qi movement through the body's meridians, as well as deficiencies or imbalances of qi in the Zang Fu organs.[27] Traditional Chinese medicine often seeks to relieve these imbalances by adjusting the circulation of qi using a variety of techniques including herbology, food therapy, physical training regimens (qigong, t'ai chi ch'uan, and other martial arts training),[28] moxibustion, tui na, and acupuncture.[29] Qi field A qi field (chu-chong) refers to the cultivation of an energy field by a group, typically for healing or other benevolent purposes. A qi field is believed to be produced by visualization and affirmation, and is an important component of Wisdom Healing Qigong (Zhineng Qigong), founded by Grandmaster Ming Pang.[30][31][32] Scientific view Qi is a purely hypothetical concept.[4] A United States National Institutes of Health consensus statement on acupuncture in 1997 noted that concepts such as qi "are difficult to reconcile with contemporary biomedical information."[33] Practices involving qi Feng shui Main article: Feng shui The traditional Chinese art of geomancy, the placement and arrangement of space called feng shui, is based on calculating the balance of qi, interactions between the five elements, yin and yang, and other factors. The retention or dissipation of qi is believed to affect the health, wealth, energy level, luck and many other aspects of the occupants of the space. Attributes of each item in a space affect the flow of qi by slowing it down, redirecting it or accelerating it, which is said to influence the energy level of the occupants. One use for a luopan is to detect the flow of qi.[34] The quality of qi may rise and fall over time, feng shui with a compass might be considered a form of divination that assesses the quality of the local environment. Qigong Main article: Qigong Qìgōng (气功 or 氣功) is a practice involving coordinated breathing, movement, and awareness, traditionally viewed as a practice to cultivate and balance qi. With roots in traditional Chinese medicine, philosophy, and martial arts, qigong is now practiced worldwide for exercise, healing, meditation, and training for martial arts. Typically a qigong practice involves rhythmic breathing coordinated with slow stylized movement, a calm mindful state, and visualization of guiding qi.[35][36][37] Martial arts Main article: Neijing Qi is a didactic concept in many Chinese, Korean and Japanese martial arts. Martial qigong is a feature of both internal and external training systems in China[38] and other East Asian cultures.[39] The most notable of the qi-focused "internal" force (jin) martial arts are Baguazhang, Xing Yi Quan, T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Snake Kung Fu, Southern Dragon Kung Fu, Aikido, Aikijujutsu, Kyūdō, Hapkido, jian and katana swordplay, Luohan Quan, Shaolin Kung Fu, Liu He Ba Fa, Buddhist Style, and some forms of Karate, Tae Kwon Do, and Silat. Demonstrations of qi or ki are popular in some martial arts and may include the immovable body, the unraisable body, the unbendable arm, and other feats of power. Some of these feats can alternatively be explained using biomechanics and physics.[40] Acupuncture and moxibustion Main articles: Acupuncture and Moxibustion Acupuncture is a part of Traditional Chinese medicine that involves insertion of needles into superficial structures of the body (skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles) at acupuncture points to balance the flow of qi. Acupuncture is often accompanied by moxibustion, a treatment that involves burning mugwort on or near the skin at an acupuncture point. Taoist sexual practices Main article: Taoist sexual practices

1 Overview 2 Name 2.1 Historic origin 2.2 Relation to taiji philosophy 3 History and styles 3.1 T'ai chi ch'uan in the USA 3.2 T'ai chi ch'uan lineage tree 3.2.1 Modern forms 3.3 T'ai chi ch'uan today 3.3.1 T'ai chi ch'uan as sport 4 Philosophy 5 Training and techniques 5.1 Solo (taolu, neigong and qigong) 5.1.1 Qigong versus t'ai chi ch'uan 5.2 Partnered (tuishou and sanshou) 5.3 Weapons 6 Health 7 Historic and legendary confrontations 8 Attire and ranking 9 In popular culture 9.1 Movies 9.2 Series 9.3 Games 9.4 Books 10 Further reading 10.1 Books 10.2 Magazines 11 External links 12 Notes and references Overview The term "t'ai chi ch'uan" translates as "supreme ultimate fist", "boundless fist", "supreme ultimate boxing" or "great extremes boxing". The chi in this instance is the Wade-Giles transliteration of the Pinyin jí, and is distinct from qì (ch'i, "life energy"). The concept of the taiji ("supreme ultimate"), in contrast with wuji ("without ultimate"), appears in both Taoist and Confucian Chinese philosophy, where it represents the fusion or mother[2] of Yin and Yang into a single ultimate, represented by the taijitu symbol Taijitu - Small (CW).svg. T'ai chi ch'uan theory and practice evolved in agreement with many Chinese philosophical principles, including those of Taoism and Confucianism. T'ai chi ch'uan training involves five elements, taolu (solo hand and weapons routines/forms), neigong & qigong (breathing, movement and awareness exercises and meditation), tuishou (response drills) and sanshou (self defence techniques). While t'ai chi ch'uan is typified by some for its slow movements, many t'ai chi styles (including the three most popular - Yang, Wu, and Chen) - have secondary forms with faster pace. Some traditional schools of t'ai chi teach partner exercises known as tuishou ("pushing hands"), and martial applications of the taolu's (forms') postures. In China, t'ai chi ch'uan is categorized under the Wudang grouping of Chinese martial arts[3] - that is, the arts applied with internal power.[4] Although the Wudang name falsely suggests these arts originated at the so-called Wudang Mountain, it is simply used to distinguish the skills, theories and applications of neijia ("internal arts") from those of the Shaolin grouping, waijia ("hard" or "external") martial art styles.[5] Since the first widespread promotion of t'ai chi ch'uan's health benefits by Yang Shaohou, Yang Chengfu, Wu Chien-ch'uan, and Sun Lutang in the early 20th century,[6] it has developed a worldwide following among people with little or no interest in martial training, for its benefit to health and health maintenance.[7] Medical studies of t'ai chi support its effectiveness as an alternative exercise and a form of martial arts therapy. It is purported that focusing the mind solely on the movements of the form helps to bring about a state of mental calm and clarity. Besides general health benefits and stress management attributed to t'ai chi ch'uan training, aspects of traditional Chinese medicine are taught to advanced t'ai chi ch'uan students in some traditional schools.[8] Some other forms of martial arts require students to wear a uniform during practice. In general, t'ai chi ch'uan schools do not require a uniform, but both traditional and modern teachers often advocate loose, comfortable clothing and flat-soled shoes.[9][10] The physical techniques of t'ai chi ch'uan are described in the "T'ai chi classics", a set of writings by traditional masters, as being characterized by the use of leverage through the joints based on coordination and relaxation, rather than muscular tension, in order to neutralize, yield, or initiate attacks. The slow, repetitive work involved in the process of learning how that leverage is generated gently and measurably increases, opens the internal circulation (breath, body heat, blood, lymph, peristalsis, etc.). The study of t'ai chi ch'uan primarily involves three aspects: Health: An unhealthy or otherwise uncomfortable person may find it difficult to meditate to a state of calmness or to use t'ai chi ch'uan as a martial art. T'ai chi ch'uan's health training, therefore, concentrates on relieving the physical effects of stress on the body and mind. For those focused on t'ai chi ch'uan's martial application, good physical fitness is an important step towards effective self-defense. Meditation: The focus and calmness cultivated by the meditative aspect of t'ai chi ch'uan is seen as necessary in maintaining optimum health (in the sense of relieving stress and maintaining homeostasis) and in application of the form as a soft style martial art. Martial art: The ability to use t'ai chi ch'uan as a form of self-defense in combat is the test of a student's understanding of the art. T'ai chi ch'uan is the study of appropriate change in response to outside forces, the study of yielding and "sticking" to an incoming attack rather than attempting to meet it with opposing force.[11] The use of t'ai chi ch'uan as a martial art is quite challenging and requires a great deal of training.[12] Name T'ai chi ch'uan / Taijiquan is formed by the combination of three Chinese characters (hanzi): Hanzi Wade-Giles Pinyin Meaning 太極 t'ai chi tài jí the source, the beginning 拳 ch'uan quán fist, boxing Despite having a single Chinese spelling, 太極拳, there are two different spellings in the English usage, one derived from the Wade-Giles and the other from the Pinyin transliteration, with the West mostly being familiar with the Wade-Giles, t'ai chi ch'uan. This name is often shortened by Westerners to "t'ai chi" (or "tai chi," a common misspelling). This shortened name is the same as that of t'ai chi philosophy, sometimes resulting in confusion between the two. The chi in the martial art's name can also be mistaken for ch'i (氣), especially as ch'i is involved in the practice of t'ai chi ch'uan. The 'up-to-date' Pinyin transliteration, tàijíquán, is not subject to such misinterpretation, as the spelling of the hanzi 極, jí is quite distinct from that of 氣, qi. "T'ai chi ch'uan" (including "t'ai chi" and their misspellings) remains the popular spelling used by the general public today. Many professional practitioners, masters and martial arts bodies (such as the IWUF[13]) write it as taijiquan. Historic origin When tracing t'ai chi ch'uan's formative influences to Taoist and Buddhist monasteries, there seems little more to go on than legendary tales from a modern historical perspective, but t'ai chi ch'uan's practical connection to and dependence upon the theories of Sung dynasty Neo-Confucianism (a conscious synthesis of Taoist, Buddhist and Confucian traditions, especially the teachings of Mencius) is claimed by some traditional schools.[5] T'ai chi ch'uan's theories and practice are believed by these schools to have been formulated by the Taoist monk Zhang Sanfeng in the 12th century, at about the same time that the principles of the Neo-Confucian school were making themselves felt in Chinese intellectual life.[5] However, modern research casts serious doubts on the validity of those claims, pointing out that a 17th-century piece called "Epitaph for Wang Zhengnan" (1669), composed by Huang Zongxi (1610-1695 A.D.), is the earliest reference indicating any connection between Zhang Sanfeng and martial arts whatsoever, and must not be taken literally but must be understood as a political metaphor instead. Claims of connections between t'ai chi ch'uan and Zhang Sanfeng appeared no earlier than the 19th century.[14] History records that Yang Luchan trained with the Chen family for 18 years before he started to teach the art in Beijing, which strongly suggests that his art was based on, or heavily influenced by, the Chen family art. The Chen family are able to trace the development of their art back to Chen Wangting in the 17th century. What is now known as "t'ai chi ch'uan" only appears to have received this appellation from around the mid-1800s.[14] There was a scholar in the Imperial Court by the name of Ong Tong He, who witnessed a demonstration by Yang Luchan at a time before Yang had established his reputation as a teacher. Afterwards Ong wrote: "Hands holding Taiji shakes the whole world, a chest containing ultimate skill defeats a gathering of heroes." Before this time the art may have had a number of different names, and appears to have been generically described by outsiders as zhan quan (沾拳, "touch boxing"), mian quan (绵拳, "soft boxing") or shisan shi (十三式, "the thirteen techniques"). Relation to taiji philosophy See also: Taiji (philosophy) In modern usage, the term 太極,t'ai chi / taiji (unless further qualified as in "taiji philosophy" or "taiji diagram") is now commonly understood, both in the West and in mainland China, to refer to the martial art and exercise system. However, the term has its origins in Chinese philosophy. The word taiji translates to "great pole/goal" or "supreme ultimate", and is believed to be a pivotal, spiraling, or coiling force that transforms the neutrality of wuji to a state of polarity depicted by the taijitu.[15] T'ai chi / taiji is thus symbolically represented by a state between wuji and the polar "yin and yang", not by the actual yin and yang symbol, as is frequently misinterpreted.[1] The combination of the term taiji and quan ("fist"), produces the martial art's name taijiquan or "taiji fist", showing the close link and use of the taiji concept in the martial art. Taijiquan does not directly refer to the use of qi as is commonly assumed.[16] The practice of taijiquan is meant to be in harmony with taiji philosophy,[17] utilising and manipulating qi via taiji, to produce great effect with minimal effort. The appropriateness of this more recent appellation is seen in the oldest literature preserved by these schools where the art is said to be a study of yin (receptive) and yang (active) principles, using terminology found in the Chinese classics, especially the I Ching and the Tao Te Ching.[5] History and styles See also: History of Chinese Martial Arts There are five major styles of t'ai chi ch'uan, each named after the Chinese family from which it originated: Chen-style (陳氏) of Chen Wangting (1580-1660) Yang-style (楊氏) of Yang Lu-ch'an (1799-1872) Wu- or Wu (Hao)-style (武氏) of Wu Yu-hsiang (1812-1880) Wu-style (吳氏) of Wu Ch'uan-yu (1834-1902) and his son Wu Chien-ch'uan (1870-1942) Sun-style (孫氏) of Sun Lu-t'ang (1861-1932) The order of verifiable age is as listed above. The order of popularity (in terms of number of practitioners) is Yang, Wu, Chen, Sun, and Wu/Hao.[5] The major family styles share much underlying theory, but differ in their approaches to training. There are now dozens of new styles, hybrid styles, and offshoots of the main styles, but the five family schools are the groups recognized by the international community as being the orthodox styles. Other important styles are Zhaobao t'ai chi ch'uan, a close cousin of Chen-style, which has been newly recognized by Western practitioners as a distinct style, and the Fu style, created by Fu Chen Sung, which evolved from Chen, Sun and Yang styles, and also incorporates movements from Baguazhang (Pa Kua Chang)[citation needed]. The differences between the different styles range from varying speeds to the very way in which the movements are performed. For example, the form "Parting the wild horse's mane" in Yang-style does not at all resemble the very same movement in Sun-style. Also, the Sun 73 forms take as long to perform as the Yang 24 forms[citation needed]. Wu-style master Eddie Wu demonstrating the form "Grasp the bird's tail" at a tournament in Toronto, Canada All existing styles can be traced back to the Chen-style, which had been passed down as a family secret for generations. The Chen family chronicles record Chen Wangting, of the family's 9th generation, as the inventor of what is known today as t'ai chi ch'uan. Yang Luchan became the first person outside the family to learn t'ai chi ch'uan. His success in fighting earned him the nickname Yang Wudi, which means "Unbeatable Yang", and his fame and efforts in teaching greatly contributed to the subsequent spreading of t'ai chi ch'uan knowledge. T'ai chi ch'uan in the USA Choy Hok Pang, a disciple of Yang Chengfu, was the first known proponent of t'ai chi ch'uan to openly teach in the United States in 1939. Subsequently, his son and student Choy Kam Man emigrated to San Francisco from Hong Kong in 1949 to teach t'ai chi ch'uan in San Francisco's Chinatown. Choy Kam Man taught until he died in 1994.[18][19] Sophia Delza, a professional dancer and student of Ma Yueliang, performed the first known public demonstration of t'ai chi ch'uan in the United States at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City in 1954. She also wrote the first English language book on t'ai chi, T'ai Chi Ch'uan: Body and Mind in Harmony, in 1961. She taught regular classes at Carnegie Hall, the Actors Studio, and the United Nations.[20][21] Another early proponent of t'ai chi ch'uan to openly teach in the United States was Zheng Manqing, who opened his school Shr Jung T'ai Chi after he moved to New York in year 1964. His 37-movement t'ai chi ch'uan form became very popular and was the dominant form in the New York-Philadelphia-Washington DC corridor until other teachers started to emigrate to the United States in larger numbers in the 90's. He taught until his death in 1975.[22] T'ai chi ch'uan lineage tree Note: This lineage tree is not comprehensive, but depicts those considered the 'gate-keepers' & most recognised individuals in each generation of the respective styles. Although many styles were passed down to respective descendants of the same family, the lineage focused on is that of the martial art & its main styles, not necessarily that of the families. Each (coloured) style depicted below, has a lineage tree on its respective article page that is focused on that specific style, showing a greater insight into the highly significant individuals in its lineage. Names denoted by an asterisk are legendary or semi-legendary figures in the lineage; while their involvement in the lineage is accepted by most of the major schools, it is not independently verifiable from known historical records. v t e Key: Solid lines Direct teacher-student. (张三丰) Zhang Sanfeng* c. 12th century NEIJIA Dash lines Individual(s) omitted. Various Daoists Legendary figures Dot lines Partial influence /taught informally /limited time. (王宗岳) Wang Zongyue* TAIJIQUAN Dash cross Branch continues. (陈王庭) Chen Wangting 1580-1660 CHEN-STYLE (蒋法) Jiang Fa Zhaobao-style (陈汝信) Chen Ruxin 2nd gen. Chen (陈所乐) Chen Suole 2nd gen. Chen (邢喜怀) Xing Xihuai 2nd gen. Zhaobao (陈大鹍) Chen Dakun 3rd gen. Chen (陈大鹏) Chen Dapeng 3rd gen. Chen (陈光印) Chen Guangyin 3rd gen. Chen (陈申如) Chen Shenru 3rd gen. Chen (陈恂如) Chen Xunru 3rd gen. Chen (陈正如) Chen Zhengru 3rd gen. Chen (张楚臣) Zhang Chuchen 3rd gen. Zhaobao (陈善通) Chen Shantong 4th gen. Chen (陈善志) Chen Shanzhi 4th gen. Chen (陈继夏) Chen Jixia 4th gen. Chen (陈节) Chen Jie 4th gen. Chen (陈敬伯) Chen Jingbo 4th gen. Chen 4th gen. Zhaobao (陈秉奇) Chen Bingqi 5th gen. Chen (陈秉壬) Chen Bingren 5th gen. Chen (陈秉旺) Chen Bingwang 1748-? 5th gen. Chen (陈公兆) Chen Gongzhao 1715- after1795 5th gen. Chen (张宗禹) Zhang Zongyu 5th gen. Zhaobao (陈长兴) Chen Changxing 1771-1853 6th gen. Chen Chen Old Frame (陈有本) Chen Youben c. 19th century 6th gen. Chen Chen Small Frame (张彦) Zhang Yan 6th gen. Zhaobao (陈耕耘) Chen Gengyun 7th gen. Chen (杨露禅) Yang Luchan 1799-1872 YANG-STYLE Guang Ping Yang Yangjia Michuan (陈清萍) Chen Qingping 1795-1868 7th gen. Chen 7th gen. Zhaobao (陈延熙) Chen Yanxi 8th gen. Chen (王兰亭) Wang Lanting 1840-? 2nd gen. Yang (杨健侯) Yang Jianhou 1839-1917 2nd gen. Yang 2nd gen. Yangjia Michuan (杨班侯) Yang Banhou 1837-1892 2nd gen. Yang 2nd gen. Guang Ping Yang Yang Small Frame (武禹襄) Wu Yuxiang 1812-1880 WU (HAO)-STYLE (他招远) He Zhaoyuan 1810-1890 8th gen. Zhaobao Zhaobao He-style (陈发科) Chen Fake 1887-1957 9th gen. Chen Chen New Frame (李瑞东) Li Ruidong 1851-1917 Li-style (杨澄甫) Yang Chengfu 1883-1936 3rd gen. Yang Yang Big Frame (杨少侯) Yang Shaohou 1862-1930 3rd gen. Yang Yang Small Frame (吴全佑) Wu Quanyou 1834-1902 1st gen. Wu (王矯宇) Wang Jiaoyu 1836-1939 3rd gen. Guang Ping Yang (李亦畬) Li Yiyu 1832-1892 2nd gen. Wu (Hao) (和庆喜) He Qingxi 1857-1936 9th gen. Zhaobao (陈照丕) Chen Zhaopi 1893-1972 10th gen. Chen focused on Chen Old Frame (陈照奎) Chen Zhaokui 1928-1981 10th gen. Chen focused on Chen New Frame (張欽霖) Zhang Qinlin 1888-1967 3rd gen. Yangjia Michuan (杨振铎) Yang Zhenduo b. 1926 4th gen. Yang (傅仲文) Fu Zhongwen 1903-1994 4th gen. Yang Beijing (24) form (郑曼青) Zheng Manqing 1902-1975 4th gen. Yang Short (37) Form (吴鉴泉) Wu Jianquan 1870-1942 2nd gen. Wu WU-STYLE 108 Form Kuo Lien Ying 1895-1984 4th gen. Guang Ping Yang (郝為真) Hao Weizhen 1849-1920 3rd gen. Wu (Hao) (郑悟清) Zheng Wuqing 1895-1984 10th gen. Zhaobao (吴公儀) Wu Gongyi 1900-1970 3rd gen. Wu (孙禄堂) Sun Lutang 1861-1932 SUN-STYLE (郝月如) Hao Yueru 1877-1935 4th gen. Wu (Hao) (王延年) Wang Yannian 1914-2008 5th gen. Yang 4th gen. Yangjia Michuan (鄭天熊) Zheng Tianxiong 1930-2005 Wudang-style (吴雁霞) Wu Yanxia 1930-2001 4th gen. Wu (孙剑云) Sun Jianyun 1913-2003 2nd gen. Sun (郝少如) Hao Shaoru 1908-1983 5th gen. Wu (Hao) (陈小旺) Chen Xiaowang b. 1945 11th gen. Chen (陈小星) Chen Xiaoxing b. 1952 11th gen. Chen (杨军) Yang Jun b. 1968 5th gen. Yang (吴光宇) Wu Guangyu b. 1946 5th gen. Wu (孙永田) Sun Yongtian b. ? 3rd gen. Sun (刘积顺) Liu Jishun b. 1930 6th gen. Wu (Hao) CHEN-STYLE YANG-STYLE WU-STYLE SUN-STYLE WU (HAO)-STYLE Modern forms The Cheng Man-ch'ing (Zheng Manqing) and Chinese Sports Commission short forms are derived from Yang family forms, but neither is recognized as Yang family t'ai chi ch'uan by standard-bearing Yang family teachers. The Chen, Yang, and Wu families are now promoting their own shortened demonstration forms for competitive purposes. (杨澄甫) Yang Chengfu 1883-1936 3rd gen. Yang Yang Big Frame (郑曼青) Zheng Manqing 1902-1975 4th gen. Yang Short (37) Form Chinese Sports Commission 1956 Beijing (24) Form 1989 42 Competition Form (Wushu competition form combined from Chen, Yang, Wu & Sun styles) T'ai chi ch'uan today Outdoor practice in Beijing's Temple of Heaven. See also: World Tai Chi and Qigong Day In the last twenty years or so, t'ai chi ch'uan classes that purely emphasise health have become popular in hospitals, clinics, as well as community and senior centres. This has occurred as the baby boomers generation has aged and the art's reputation as a low-stress training method for seniors has become better known.[23][24] As a result of this popularity, there has been some divergence between those that say they practice t'ai chi ch'uan primarily for self-defence, those that practice it for its aesthetic appeal (see wushu below), and those that are more interested in its benefits to physical and mental health. The wushu aspect is primarily for show; the forms taught for those purposes are designed to earn points in competition and are mostly unconcerned with either health maintenance or martial ability. More traditional stylists believe the two aspects of health and martial arts are equally necessary: the yin and yang of t'ai chi ch'uan. The t'ai chi ch'uan "family" schools, therefore, still present their teachings in a martial art context, whatever the intention of their students in studying the art.[25] T'ai chi ch'uan as sport In order to standardize t'ai chi ch'uan for wushu tournament judging, and because many t'ai chi ch'uan teachers have either moved out of China or had been forced to stop teaching after the Communist regime was established in 1949, the government sponsored the Chinese Sports Committee, who brought together four of their wushu teachers to truncate the Yang family hand form to 24 postures in 1956. They wanted to retain the look of t'ai chi ch'uan, but create a routine that would be less difficult to teach and much less difficult to learn than longer (in general, 88 to 108 posture), classical, solo hand forms. In 1976, they developed a slightly longer form also for the purposes of demonstration that still would not involve the complete memory, balance, and coordination requirements of the traditional forms. This became the Combined 48 Forms that were created by three wushu coaches, headed by Men Hui Feng. The combined forms were created based on simplifying and combining some features of the classical forms from four of the original styles: Chen, Yang, Wu, and Sun. As t'ai chi ch'uan again became popular on the mainland, more competitive forms were developed to be completed within a six-minute time limit. In the late-1980s, the Chinese Sports Committee standardized many different competition forms. They developed sets to represent the four major styles as well as combined forms. These five sets of forms were created by different teams, and later approved by a committee of wushu coaches in China. All sets of forms thus created were named after their style, e.g., the "Chen-style national competition form" is the 56 Forms, and so on. The combined forms are The 42-Form or simply the Competition Form. Another modern form is the "97 movements combined t'ai chi ch'uan form", created in the 1950s; it contains characteristics of the Yang, Wu, Sun, Chen, and Fu styles blended into a combined form. The wushu coach Bow Sim Mark is a notable exponent of the "67 combined form". These modern versions of t'ai chi ch'uan (often listed as the pinyin romanization "taijiquan" among practitioners, teachers and masters) have since become an integral part of international wushu tournament competition, and have been featured in popular movies, starring or choreographed by well-known wushu competitors, such as Jet Li and Donnie Yen. In the 11th Asian Games of 1990, wushu was included as an item for competition for the first time with the 42-Form being chosen to represent t'ai chi ch'uan. The International Wushu Federation (IWUF) applied for wushu to be part of the Olympic games, but will not count medals.[26] Practitioners also test their practical martial skills against students from other schools and martial arts styles in tuishou ("pushing hands") and sanshou competition. Philosophy Main article: T'ai chi ch'uan philosophy The philosophy of t'ai chi ch'uan is that, if one uses hardness to resist violent force, then both sides are certainly to be injured at least to some degree. Such injury, according to t'ai chi ch'uan theory, is a natural consequence of meeting brute force with brute force. Instead, students are taught not to directly fight or resist an incoming force, but to meet it in softness and follow its motion while remaining in physical contact until the incoming force of attack exhausts itself or can be safely redirected, meeting yang with yin. When done correctly, this yin/yang or yang/yin balance in combat, or in a broader philosophical sense, is a primary goal of t'ai chi ch'uan training. Lao Tzu provided the archetype for this in the Tao Te Ching when he wrote, "The soft and the pliable will defeat the hard and strong." Traditional schools also emphasize that one is expected to show wude ("martial virtue/heroism"), to protect the defenseless, and show mercy to one's opponents.[6] Training and techniques The core training involves two primary features: the first being taolu (solo "forms"), a slow sequence of movements which emphasize a straight spine, abdominal breathing and a natural range of motion; the second being different styles of tuishou ("pushing hands") for training movement principles of the form with a partner and in a more practical manner. Solo (taolu, neigong and qigong) Further information: List of t'ai chi ch'uan forms Painting in Chenjiagou, illustrating taolu according to the Chen style of taijiquan. The taolu (solo "forms") should take the students through a complete, natural range of motion over their centre of gravity. Accurate, repeated practice of the solo routine is said to retrain posture, encourage circulation throughout the students' bodies, maintain flexibility through their joints, and further familiarize students with the martial application sequences implied by the various forms. The major traditional styles of t'ai chi have forms that differ somewhat in terms of aesthetics, but there are also many obvious similarities that point to their common origin. The solo forms - empty-hand and weapon - are catalogues of movements that are practised individually in pushing hands and martial application scenarios to prepare students for self-defence training. In most traditional schools, different variations of the solo forms can be practised: fast/slow, small-circle / large-circle, square/round (which are different expressions of leverage through the joints), low-sitting / high-sitting (the degree to which weight-bearing knees are kept bent throughout the form), for example. Breathing exercises; neigong ("internal skill") or, more commonly, qigong ("life energy cultivation") are practiced to develop qi ("life energy") in coordination with physical movement and zhan zhuang ("standing like a post") or combinations of the two. These were formerly taught only to disciples as a separate, complementary training system. In the last 60 years they have become better known to the general public. Qigong versus t'ai chi ch'uan Main article: Qigong Qigong involves coordinated movement, breath, and awareness used for health, meditation, and martial arts training. While many scholars and practitioners consider t'ai chi ch'uan to be a type of qigong,[27][28] the two are commonly distinguished as separate but closely related practices, with qigong playing an important role in training for t'ai chi ch'uan, and with many ta'i chi ch'uan movements performed as part of qigong practice. The focus of qigong is typically more on health or meditation than martial applications. Partnered (tuishou and sanshou) Two students receive instruction in tuishou ("pushing hands"), one of the core training exercises of t'ai chi ch'uan. T'ai chi ch'uan's martial aspect relies on sensitivity to the opponent's movements and centre of gravity dictating appropriate responses. Effectively affecting or "capturing" the opponent's centre of gravity immediately upon contact, is trained as the primary goal of the martial t'ai chi ch'uan student.[8] The sensitivity needed to capture the centre is acquired over thousands of hours of first yin (slow, repetitive, meditative, low-impact) and then later adding yang ("realistic," active, fast, high-impact) martial training through taolu ("forms"), tuishou ("pushing hands"), and sanshou ("sparring"). T'ai chi ch'uan trains in three basic ranges: close, medium and long, and then everything in between. Pushes and open-hand strikes are more common than punches, and kicks are usually to the legs and lower torso, never higher than the hip, depending on style. The fingers, fists, palms, sides of the hands, wrists, forearms, elbows, shoulders, back, hips, knees, and feet are commonly used to strike, with strikes to the eyes, throat, heart, groin, and other acupressure points trained by advanced students. Chin na, which are joint traps, locks, and breaks are also used. Most t'ai chi ch'uan teachers expect their students to thoroughly learn defensive or neutralizing skills first, and a student will have to demonstrate proficiency with them before offensive skills will be extensively trained. In addition to the physical form, martial t'ai chi ch'uan schools also focus on how the energy of a strike affects the other person. A palm strike that looks to have the same movement may be performed in such a way that it has a completely different effect on the target's body. A palm strike that could simply push the opponent backward, could instead be focused in such a way as to lift the opponent vertically off the ground, breaking his/her centre of gravity; or that it could terminate the force of the strike within the other person's body with the intent of causing internal damage. Most aspects of a trainee's t'ai chi ch'uan development are meant to be covered within the partnered practice of tuishou, and so, sanshou ("sparring") is not as commonly used as a method of training, but more advanced students sometimes do practice by sanshou. Sanshou is more common to tournaments such as wushu tournaments. Weapons Taijijian A pair of jian with their scabbards. Wushu jian pair event at the 10th All China games. Variations of t'ai chi ch'uan involving weapons also exist such as taijijian. The weapons training and fencing applications employ: the jian, a straight double-edged sword, practiced as taijijian; the dao, a heavier curved saber, sometimes called a broadsword; the tieshan, a folding fan, also called shan and practiced as taijishan; the gun, a 2m long wooden staff and practiced as taijigun; the qiang, a 2m long spear or a 4m long lance. A matched set of two feng huo lun. More exotic weapons still used by some traditional styles include: the large dadao and podao sabres; the ji, or halberd; the cane; the sheng biao, or rope dart; the sanjiegun, or three sectional staff; the feng huo lun, or wind and fire wheels; the lasso; the whip, chain whip and steel whip. Health A Chinese woman performs Yang-style t'ai chi ch'uan A 2011 overview of existing research on t'ai chi ch'uan's health effects found evidence of medical benefit for preventing falls, mental health, and general health in elderly people. There wasn't conclusive evidence for any of the other conditions researched, including Parkinson's disease, diabetes, cancer and arthritis.[29] The practice of t'ai chi ch'uan is encouraged by the National Parkinson Foundation and Diabetes Australia. Historic and legendary confrontations Yang Chengfu utilizing one of the many possible applications of the Single Whip technique. During the Qing dynasty, a man named Wang Yuanwai living in Beipinggao village (about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) east of Chenjiagou), was threatened with death by a gang of highwaymen with bladed weapons, unless he surrendered his valuables. He sent for assistance from Chen Suole (see the lineage tree above), who was away according to his sons Chen Shenru and Chen Xunru—despite their being only around fifteen and sixteen years old, the boys volunteered their own help instead. They convinced the messenger to tell Wang Yuanwai to give the bandits liquor, discussed a plan and that night, traveled to the Wang residence in Beipinggao, where they jumped over the fence of the rear garden and there found Wang Yuanwai. He told them that the highwaymen, numbering around twenty, were drunken in his guest hall. While peeping in, Shenru pushed Xunru into the hall and extinguished several candles by throwing a bunch of peas at them. Xunru leapt onto beam and taunted, the panicked bandits who had seemingly started fighting each other, saying, "So you still will not hand over your weapons and surrender? Gods number one and two are here." Some tried to escape the frenzy, but were attacked by Shenru, who was still at the door.[30] In the 1940s, a man known as "Big Spear Liu" came to Shanghai's "big world," the city's major performance and entertainment centre. Liu asked the doorkeeper, "Are there any good hands around here?" In other words, he was seeking someone considered highly skilled in martial art in order to make a challenge. The doorkeeper told "Big Spear Liu" of Tian Zhaolin (student of Yang Jianhou). With that Liu set off to find him. He found Tian Zhaolin and immediately demanded to spar by each striking the other three times, to which Tian Zhaolin responded that it may not be necessary. He said, "Just let me touch you. If you can tolerate my touch, you win." Liu, sensing a fool and an effortless victory, immediately agreed. The two men approached and Tian Zhaolin reached out his hand to touch Liu's chest. Within a few moments, Liu's facial muscles started to contort. Soon he grimaced and his face showed signs of intense pain. Spear Liu pulled away and, after recovering, commented, "I have travelled throughout five provinces and various cities but until today I have never seen such a profound skill." Energy, including that of taijiquan, may be thought of as transmission by wave. Earlier generation adepts in taijiquan had an expression - "'hitting the cow on this side of the Mountain." This phrase referred to hitting an opponent's front side with the pain and effect being felt on the back side. In years past, people who sparred with Yang Shaohou often described him as also having an energy like electricity. That is, it caused very painful sensations in the muscle and even on the skin surface. Tian Zhaolin, coming from that background, also knew this method.[31] In 1945, Hu Yuen Chou, a student of Yang Chengfu, defeated a Russian boxer by TKO in a full-contact match in Fut San, China. At the age of 60, Huang Sheng Shyan demonstrated his abilities in taijiquan by defeating Liao Kuang-Cheng, the Asian champion wrestler, 26 throws to 0 in a fund raising event in Kuching, Malaysia.[32] Attire and ranking Master Yang Jun in demonstration attire that's come to be identified with taijiquan In practice traditionally there is no specific uniform required in the practice of t'ai chi ch'uan. Modern day practitioners usually wear comfortable, loose T-shirts and trousers made from breathable natural fabrics, that allow for free movement during practice. Despite this, t'ai chi ch'uan has become synonymous with "t'ai chi uniforms" or "kung fu uniforms" that usually consist of loose-fitting traditional Chinese styled trousers and a long or short-sleeved shirt, with a Mandarin collar and buttoned with Chinese frog buttons. The long-sleeved variants are referred to as Northern-style uniforms, whilst the short-sleeved, Southern-style uniforms. The colour of this clothing is usually, all white, all black, black & white, or any other colour, mostly being either all a single solid colour or a combination of 2 colours: one colour being the actual clothing and the binding being a contrasting colour. They are normally made from natural fabrics such as cotton or silk. These uniforms are not a requirement, but rather are usually worn by masters & professional practitioners during demonstrations, tournaments and other public exhibitions. There is no standardized t'ai chi ch'uan ranking system, and not all schools use belt rankings. Some schools may present students with belts depicting rank, similar to dans in Japanese martial arts. A simple uniform element of respect and allegiance to one's teacher and their methods and community, belts also mark hierarchy, skill, and accomplishment of practice in one school's style and system. During wushu tournaments, masters and grandmasters often wear "kung fu uniforms" which tend to have no belts. Wearing a belt signifying rank in such a situation would be unusual. In popular culture T'ai chi ch'uan plays an important role in many martial arts and fighting action movies, series, novels, especially in those ones which belong to the wuxia genre, as well as in video games, trading cards games, etc. Fictional portrayals often refer to Zhang San Feng, who is reported to be the first one harnessing and operationalising the benefits of the 'internal' and the 'soft', and to the Taoist monasteries of Wudang Mountains, where he lived. Movies As early as 1972 in Lady Whirlwind (aka Deep Thrust) starring Sammo Hung, one of the protagonists (Chang Yi in a rare good guy role) is initially severely beaten by Japanese Yakuza gangsters and left for dead, but afterwards he is taught t'ai chi ch'uan by an old man and it is this martial arts edge that enables him to take his revenge against the leader of the gang. In 1984, in Drunken Tai Chi, the protagonist (Donnie Yen in his first major role) befriends a puppeteer and is taught t'ai chi ch'uan by him and he combines it with his previous hard style, thus being able now to defeat a contract killer who was hired and sent against him and who used only a hard style. The title's 'drunken' refers to the wine-loving protagonist and not to any variant of t'ai chi ch'uan. Ang Lee's first Western movie in 1992, Pushing Hands, features as its leading character a traditional Chinese t'ai chi ch'uan master moving to New York and having to get used to a different way of life and to a different group of there. A critical eye is laid upon whether t'ai chi ch'uan and martial arts in general can benefit or even fit someone in modern society, but the leading character seems to be safeguarding the need for this physical and cultural capital. In 1993, in a reproduction of a series mentioned below, the Kung Fu Cult Master (aka Kung Fu Master, The Evil Cult and The Lord of Wu Tang) starring Jet Li, Sammo Hung and Sharla Cheung, Jet Li with the help of Sammo Hung resembling Zhang San Feng in appearance realises and accepts the benefits of the 'internal' and the 'soft' and their complementarity if not their superiority to the 'external' and the 'hard' and manages to deal with opponents of various other martial arts. Also in 1993, The Tai Chi Master (aka Twin Warriors) starring Jet Li and Michelle Yeoh, Jet Li leaves behind the hard aspects of the Shaolin practises to which he was used when he was learning martial arts in the Shaolin Monastery and develops and even mentions explicitly the name of his new martial art, t'ai chi ch'uan, thus fighting and defeating his old friend from the Shaolin Monastery but current evil military general. In 1994, Street Fighter II: The Animated Movie showed Chun-Li's t'ai chi ch'uan in a much more obvious manner than seen in the video game mentioned below. In another reproduction in 2009, Street Fighter: The Legend of Chun-Li, the protagonist (Kristin Kreuk), is shown to practice barehand and sword t'ai chi ch'uan forms with her father (Edmund Chen) in their garden and to be using it extensively in her fights throughout the movie. The 1995 Ng See-yuen-produced camp classic Superfights prominently features t'ai chi ch'uan as a martial discipline. In the film, the main character is approached by a traditionalist tai chi master who teaches him to use his internal energy overcome a need for steroids when competing in the eponymous professional fighting league. In the semi-documentary film in 1996 The Tai Chi Boxer, Wu Jing enacts Yang Luchan showing how he managed to become the founder of the Yang-style t'ai chi ch'uan, although in this film Wu Jing's t'ai chi ch'uan style actually seems to be Chen rather than Yang. In Ang Lee's 2000 film, Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, starring Michelle Yeoh and Zhang Ziyi, various aspects of the fighting style and philosophy of t'ai chi ch'uan and of neijia in general are also dispersed although not explicitly acknowledged and the same is done in Zhang Yimou's 2004 romantic-wuxia film House of Flying Daggers. Shaolin Soccer (2001) and Kung Fu Hustle (2004), show exaggerated portrayals of various internal and soft martial arts including t'ai chi ch'uan. In 2007, in Fatal Contact starring Wu Jing again, his best friend and co-fighter (Ronald Cheng) is a t'ai chi ch'uan master and Wu Jing realises and mentions it when he sees him fighting against many members of a gang in the underground. Jet Li is currently preparing his next film, again titled Tai Chi Master and again intended to provide a semi-documentary account of Yang Luchan, the founder of Yang-style t'ai chi ch'uan. In the opening scenes of the 2008 blockbuster Ip Man (martial arts choreographed by Sammo Hung and starred by Donnie Yen as Ip Man), a young guy credited to t'ai chi ch'uan's '4 taels to move 1000 catties', the victory of Ip Man against a martial arts school owner who came to challenge him and lost easily, a match that he had the privilege to watch secretly while picking up his kite from Ip Man's garden, although his friends insist that this cannot have been the case in so far as Ip Man was known for using Wing Chun and not t'ai chi ch'uan. September 2012 saw the release of Tai Chi 0 (aka Tai Chi Zero) in 3D, a fictionalised portrayal of Yang Luchan learning t'ai chi ch'uan in the Chen village, which although true, in reality was not for the purpose of him saving the village from a railroad or otherwise. Released the following month, in October 2012, Tai Chi Zero's sequel, Tai Chi Hero which was shot back-to-back with Tai Chi Zero, concluded this story. A 2013 Chinese-American martial arts film called Man of Tai Chi directed by and starring Keanu Reeves and Tiger Chen was released. The film whose story is in part inspired by the life story of Keanu Reeves' friend and stunt man, Tiger Chen, has been praised by acclaimed action film director, John Woo. Series In the 1980 Hong Kong television series Tai Chi Master, the story evolves around a young man (Alex Man), who starts as a young monk from Shaolin Monastery but soon develops knowledge and skills of t'ai chi ch'uan and goes around with an endless number of fights and adventures. The popularity of the Tai Chi Master series spawned in 1981 the direct Chinese knight-errant sequel Tai Chi Master II, which shares the same action director, Yuen Wo Ping, with The Matrix trilogy, Kill Bill 1 and 2 and Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, and in which the protagonist, Wu Jing, uses his t'ai chi ch'uan to fight the villains of the story. T'ai chi ch'uan has also formed the basis for the elemental art of Waterbending in the 2005-2008 animated television series Avatar: The Last Airbender and in the new 2012 animated series The Legend of Korra. The American animated series Xiaolin Showdown centers around t'ai chi ch'uan fighting styles. Kung fu icon Vincent Zhao, in which his specialty is t'ai chi ch'uan, stars in the 2008 Hong Kong television drama The Master of Tai Chi. In the Star Trek franchise, the Klingon martial art moQbara' (mok'bara) is based entirely on t'ai chi ch'uan, and is even mentioned in-series as being similar. Games In the Street Fighter martial arts video game series, Chun-Li uses a variant of t'ai chi ch'uan. Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance introduced Kenshi, a blind warrior who uses t'ai chi ch'uan as his primary fighting style. Kenshi is also seen practising t'ai chi ch'uan forms in the ending credits after the single player arcade mode is completed. Mortal Kombat: Deadly Alliance also introduced Li Mei, who in her bio-card has her hands in a posture representing the symbol Taijitu and who uses a variant of t'ai chi ch'uan as well. A closer variant of t'ai chi ch'uan is used by the Tekken character Ling Xiaoyu, introduced in Tekken 3 and Tekken Tag Tournament. In Dead or Alive, Leifang uses t'ai chi ch'uan and this is also mentioned in her bio-card. Before fighting some of her opponents, Leifang gets ready by doing some t'ai chi ch'uan moves such as the 'immortal pounds mortar' move, so one could say that she uses Chen-style t'ai chi ch'uan in particular. The Playstation 2 game Kinetic: The Personal Fitness Trainer includes a t'ai chi based mini game and workout. The Playstation Eye Toy is used for feedback and interaction with a virtual environment. Books T'ai chi ch'uan plays a role in Jeff Stone's book series The Five Ancestors as a work-out of many people, especially of elderly ones, due to the slow pace of doing its form in order to learn it. Tres Navarre, the detective in the popular mystery novels by Rick Riordan, is a t'ai chi ch'uan master too.

Given the human condition in Taoism, the solution for attaining perfection is not following Confucian morality or rituals, but controlling the inner universe by practicing the principle of non-acting (wu-wei), a similar concept to the demand of Krishna presented in the Bhagavad Gita (3,19). It does not mean to literally do nothing, but to follow the natural order of things, to be spontaneous in all actions, understand them and not strive against nature: The sage desires no-desire, Values no-value, Learns no-learning, And returns to the places that people have forgotten (childhood). (Tao-te Ching 64) In order to attain harmony with Tao one can use a combination of the following things: physical and spiritual exercises (Thai Chi), diet, breath control (tai-yin), sexual techniques (fang-shong shu) similar to the Tantric ones, psychedelic drugs, meditation, etc. These methods are considered to revitalize the vital fluid of the body and assure long life. However, regarding what life after death consists of, Lao Tse taught neither physical immortality nor personal survival. There are no clues in the Tao-te Ching indicating such things, so they have to be later additions to Taoism. The seeking of physical immortality seems to have been added to Taoism at the time when it became mixed with alchemy (the search for an "elixir of life") and religious rituals. It is foreign to the initial spirit of Taoism, which taught indifference to life and death as a condition for one's integration in the flow of nature. Wang Ch'ung, an important Taoist thinker of the 1st century AD, had to correct the superstitions that invaded his religion, stating clearly that there is no involvement of deities in people's lives and that humans do not become ghosts at death. The only true spiritual knowledge is the mystical one, attained when any duality is surpassed, when the disciple understands that life and death are only two aspects of the same Ultimate Reality. A famous parable of Chuang Tzu says: Once I, Chuang Tzu, dreamed I was a butterfly, and was happy as a butterfly. I was conscious only of my happiness as a butterfly, unaware that I was Tzu. Soon I awaked, and there I was, veritably myself again. Now I do not know whether I was then a man dreaming I was a butterfly, or whether I am now a butterfly, dreaming I am a man. Between a man and a butterfly there is necessarily a distinction. The transition is called the transformation of things. One does not know what reality is: the state as a human or as a butterfly. The great awakening is a return to the primordial state of non-being, where all transformations cease and personal existence is annihilated: By cultivating one's nature one will return to virtue. When virtue is perfect, one will be one with the Beginning. Being one with the Beginning, one becomes vacuous, and being vacuous, one becomes great. One will then be united with the sound and breath of things. When one is united with the sound and breath of things, one is then united with the universe. This unity is intimate and seems to be stupid and foolish. This is called profound and secret virtue, this is complete harmony. (Chuang Tzu 12)