Comps Artic – Flashcards
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Three approaches to articulation therapy.
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Traditional, behavioral and linguistic-based
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This approach focuses on production of one or two phonemes at a time, until correct production is achieved.
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Traditional.
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Techniques of traditional approach (9).
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Phonetic placement (before 1939), moto-kinesthetic, group method, integral stimulation, servotheory approach, sensory motor approach, discrimination approach, nonsense approach, stimulus approach.
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Phonetic placement approach.
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Difficult to transfer skills learned to conversational speech. They also used their hands to manipulate the articulators (gross!)
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Moto-kinesthetic approach approach,
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Sounds are taught as part of specified stimulus syllable, word, phrase or sentence. Client lies down. Used today with Cerebral Palsy
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Group method approach.
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Emphasized client as a whole person with many behaviors, of which speech is only one. Think of it like AA (group therapy). This is often used in schools. Depends on warm, accepting atmosphere.
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Integral stimulation approach.
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Involves many sources of feedback (esp. auditory and visual). Stress is put on the successful production of the first carefully chosen sounds. Takes into account frequency of phonemes.
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Servotheory approach.
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Stresses need for client to discriminate the error sound and the correct target. Two stages. One, client learns to discriminate. Two, client produces sound in different words until production is consistent (even in spontaneous conversation).
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Sensory-motor approach.
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Very systematic approach, uses coarticulatory effects in context of assessment and treatment. Developed McDonald Deep Test of Articulation. Syllable is the unit on which the approach is structured (ex, using back vowels with /k, g/ phonemes, and not paring /r/ with /o/ because it rounds the /r/, making it like /wo/.
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Discrimination approach.
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Discrimination is key. When child can discriminate between error and target in sentences, production begins. Clinician uses toys and child must use correct name. Correct articulation is rewarded.
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Nonsense approach.
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Goal is to use learned, target sounds not only in deliberate way, but also in spontaneous conversational speech. After child has mastered, they must use target in nonsense materials (CV, VCV, VC syllables and conversations).
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Stimulus approach
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By Charles Van Riper (Father of articulation therapy). Focuses on the single misarticulated target sound. Four major steps (sensory perceptual training, production training for sound establishment, production training for sound stabilization, transfer and carry-over).
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Four (five) major steps of Charles Van Riper's stimulus approach.
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1. Sensory-perceptual training or ear training (identification, isolation, stimulation and discrimination). 2. Production training for sound establishment. 3. Production training for sound stabilization. 4. Transfer and carry-over (5. Maintenance)
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In stimulus approach (step 3), levels of sound stabilization production.
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A. Isolation B. Nonsense syllables C. Words D. Phrases E. Sentences F. Conversation
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Behavioral approach application to articulation therapy.
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1.Baseline (present client's behavior) 2. Target behavior (desired behavior) 3. Cues & prompts (stimuli designed to evoke desired behavior from client). 4. Consequences (stimuli presented following a response, incl. positive reinforcement)
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Fixed ratio vs. variable ratio
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Fixed ratio involves an immediate reward for every successful production. Variable ratio means more sporadically rewarded (variable ratio schedule: 18 correct/6 reinforcers= 3 VR schedule)
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Linguistic-based approaches (2 major approaches)
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1. Distinctive Feature Approach: Child needs to learn the adult rule system. Teaching individual sounds does not help this rule. (Very time consuming) 2. Phonological Process Approach: End goal is improved communication
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Three guiding principles for selection of process for remediation (in phonological approach of linguistic-based approaches).
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1. Select processes that interfere most with intelligibility. 2. Select less stable processes. 3. Select processes that are most common in young children. What is the etiology of cerebral palsy? ~~damage or malformation of the brain. Pre-, peri-, or post-natally
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What are the associated problems of cerebral palsy?
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Physical, psychological, learning. E.g., sucking, swallowing, chewing, seizures, learning, visual and emotional problems.
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What are the speech characteristics of cerebral palsy?
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developmental dysarthria. Respiratation, phonation, resonance.
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What is the assessment of cerebral palsy?
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Pre-speech assessment scale. Non-speech acts necessary for normal artic development: Head control with neck stability Coordinated pattern of respiration & phonation w/ development of abdominal muscles Variety of feeding experiences Babbling practice
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What is the remediation for cerebral palsy?
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Early neurodevelopmental team intervention: therapeutic physical handling, a variety of feeding experiences, successful experiences of normal motor acts
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What is cleft palate?
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structural anomaly that can affect the tissues, muscles, & bony processes of lip, alveolar process, hard palate, soft palate, and uvula during the embryonic development. Failure of structures to unite/ fuse.
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What is the etiology of cleft palate?
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uncertain, but may be due to trauma, malnutrition, drugs, viral infections; possible genetic predisposition
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What are the speech characteristics of cleft palate?
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Resonance: hypernasality is a common problem Articulation: related to the severity of the cleft condition Decreased intraoral pressure: glottal stop, pharyngeal fricative, etc. Dental & occlusal abnormalities Hearing Loss: conductive, fluctuating Other: functional articulation problems Phonation: weak, breathy voice w/ tendency for vocal abuse
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What is the assessment of cleft palate?
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team. Orofacial examination; Speech evaluation; Hearing; Language.
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What is the remediation and prognosis of cleft palate?
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Sx or prosthetic management; Resonance; Phonation
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What are the traditional methods for obtaining speech samples?
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-Screening Tests are used to identify persons who need intervention; preschoolers, etc. For school-age children and adults these are brief and simple. For preschoolers screening may be more complex; kids may not respond, etc. Criteria are norm-based. -Picture Inventories: motivating, easy, methodical, keep on task , identify -Other tests: lists of sentences, pictures. Consider: client's age, time available, purpose (diagnosis or remediation planning), need for a score, clinician preference. -Recording responses: as distortion, substitution and omission. May want to impose severity scales on these distinctions. +, -, ✔✗Consistency is necessary.
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What is meant by stimulability, what is the purpose of testing for stimulability and how is it done?
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-Tested with exaggerated, visible, vivid stimuli. Indicates readiness to move toward normal speech, indicating option to delay intervention; high stimulability (75%). -This testing has examined how well an individual imitates, in one or more phonetic contexts, sounds that were produced in error during testing. -Has been used to 1) to determine whether a sound is likely to be acquired w/out intervention, 2) to determine the level and/or type of production at which instruction might begin and 3) to predict the occurrence and nature of generalization.
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What is the purpose of an orofacial examination?
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-identify any structural, oral-motor or sensory deviations that might explain the presenting speech disorder. - problem should be treated with speech therapy or requires further surgery or other physical management.
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What are the components of the orofacial examination?
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-Facial Characteristics General expression, appearance, coloration, symmetry, size, shape -Dentition Overall health, structural deviations, dental appliances, supernumerary teeth -Palatal & Pharyngeal Areas: -Structure Hard palate: clefts, fistulas, coloration (blue-ish sub mucous cleft). Soft: clefts, scar tissue, size, shape, symmetry, coloration. Lateral and posterior pharyngeal walls: same, nasopharyngoscopy, etc. Function: movement, reflex, nasal air emission, nasal resonance =Tongue: Structure Appearance, size, presence of growths or lesions, position at rest, symmetry, tremor, lingual frenum. Function: movement, rate, mobility, strength, range.
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What information do we obtain by comparing performance to age norms?
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1. Vowels before consonants; Cs: 18 mos.: /p,m,h,n,w,b/, 24 mos.: /k,g,d,t,ng/, 30 mos.: /f,j/, 3 yrs.: /r,l,s/, 42 mos.: /sh,ch,z/, 4 yrs.: /dg,v/, 4;6 yrs.: /th/, number of errors. Intelligibility. Effect on communication. 2. Criterion-referenced testing: test items are selected from a teaching model that is determined from the goals of a teaching program. Performance is compared to a pre-set criterion (performance goal).
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What is the purpose of Contextual Testing?
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-Influence of surrounding phones on a particular phone. -For highly stimulable children context may be unimportant. -Most frequently used for making treatment decisions such as choosing sounds or sound patterns to work on in therapy or identifying a particular phonetic context that facilitates accurate sound production.
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What is the reason for Testing Auditory Discrimination?
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-The ability to distinguish between speech sounds. Theory: people with functional misarticulations have problems in discrimination between speech sounds. Evidence: this relationship seems to hold until age 8-9 years, after which there is no relationship.
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What are the characteristics of the optimal speech sample?
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Should 1) reflect the child's production in actual situations, 2) reveal inconsistencies and consistent patterns, 3) contain the full set of (English) phonemes.
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How may an optimal speech sample be obtained?
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It may be obtained in 3 ways: in the form of continuous speech in response to pictures, modeled continuous speech after a story (told in 6 parts- D&B) and spontaneous picture naming.
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What are some of the issues with speech samples?
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-Imitated productions may not reflect spontaneous productions -Single word productions may not reflect conversational productions -A single phoneme may not be produced the same way in all contexts- coarticulation -May need to resort to structured samples if the child is unintelligible
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What are the 5 criteria that any phono/artic analysis should satisfy?
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Describe the speaker's patterns Identify the ways these patterns differ from normal usage Determine the consequences of these patterns on communication Provide information useful for goal selection and treatment planning Provide a basis for assessing changes during treatment
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How do the following 2 approaches assess sound production between distinctive feature and phonological processand what is their theoretical basis?
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3. Distinctive Feature Approaches 1. Groups sounds into classes according to the common features that define them 2. If the child's errors can be shown to share a set of features it is hypothesized that the child has difficulty with sounds that share those features 3. Distinctive features include: front/back, labial/non labial, sonorant/ non sonorant, stop/continuant, sibilant/non sibilant, voiced/ voiceless 4. By establishing those features it is assued that all sounds that share them will be corrected 4. Phonological Process Analysis 1. Simplify groups of sounds and eliminate sound contrasts. 2. Children exhibit PPs (or natural processes) on their way to adult articulation.
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If you were to design your own Analysis Procedure what steps should you be sure to include?
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-Transcribe the sample phonetically -Analyze the syllable structures -Analyze substitutions and omissions (and distortions) -Examine the data for an inventory of the existing phonemes -Examine the substitutions and omissions for phonological processes -Analyze the child's phoneme preference
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What factors will influence your choice of an Analysis Procedures?
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-Use both single words and conversational speech for assessment -No 1 procedure provides all the information necessary to select therapy targets -Most standardized tests provide - roughly - equivalent information -When choosing an instrument, consider: the time required to complete a test -The number of processes you need to evaluate -The type of sample to can be obtained -The intelligibility of the child's speech -The child's interests in proposed activity
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What are 2 general types of PP (with examples)?
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-Whole word processes (earlier stages of phonological development): 1. Unstressed syllable deletion (ramon -> mon) 2. consonant harmony (duck guck) 3. assimilatory 4. reduplication, 5. cluster simplification -Segment-change processes 6. liquid gliding (lake wake) 7. velar fronting
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What is an example of unstressed syllable deletion?
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(ramon -> mon)
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What is an example of final consonant deletion?
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(because -> pi'ka)
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What is an example of reduplication?
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(sesame stree -> si:si)
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What is an example of consonant harmony?
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(duck -> guck) Cs sound alike
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What is an example of consonant cluster simplification?
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(cracker -> kaek)
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What is an example of syllable deletion?
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(butterfly -> bafai)
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What is an example of consonant deletion?
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word initial ("Ruthie" ruti -> uti)
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What is an example of consonant deletion?
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work final (peach -> pi)
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What is an example of consonant deletion?
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word medial (mommy -> mãi)
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What is an example of reduplication?
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(kitten -> kiki) may serve to retain syllable count
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What is an example of consonant harmony?
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full (tiger -> gaiger) partial (sound becomes similar but not identical soup -> foup)
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What is an example of consonant Cluster Simplification?
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(bread -> bed)
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What is an example of velar fronting?
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(cow: kau -> tau) the only one that affects stops and the first to be outgrown
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What is an example of stopping?
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(sea -> ti)
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What is an example of liquid gliding?
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(lake -> wake)
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What do we know about the accuracy of C production in 2 yr. olds?
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-Mean % of correct Cs was 70 (based on Shriberg and Kwiatkowski, 82) (43-91%) -Generally, greater inventories equals greater production accuracy -2yrs olds mainly attempt Cs in their productive range -Phonetic and phonological abilities may develop in parallel
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What steps are involved in children's word recognition, according to current research and theory?
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Sensory input: bottom-up, phonetic information Contextual constraints: top-down, cognitive and L experience
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Regarding speech production in the school-age child, what are the major accomplishments in terms of temporal coordination of speech production?
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2 and 4 yr. old children speak slower than adults, but maintain proportional relationships between segments. Final and stressed sylls tend to be longer than non-final and unstressed sylls. Timing control mechanism- more mature than the neuromuscular control mechanism at 2, 4 yrs. Verbal short term memory and speech rate increases were correlated in children Word-initial clusters may be represented perceptually, productively, or in execution, as one segment combining features of both elements of the cluster (swim -> fim) may start w/a timing-dominant system and then replace it w/an articulation-dominant system
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What is the influence of literacy on phonological reorganization?
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-Knowledge of vowel alternations education &/or learning the orthographic system of a L bring to conscious attn. phonological change rules -Influence of spelling on perception and production: alphabetic or orthographic image combines w/other word info and is stored in the mental lexicon -Differences in lexical organization: children ~ attend more to rhythm, word endings; C-harmony; prefer open sylls, difference between unstressed sylls; later = literacy; derivational affixes
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What is the influence from the peer group on phonological reorganization?
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Can change the child's parental influenced dialect almost completely in later years
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What is the purpose of care at the 4 stages of artic & phon devel.?
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-Stage 1, birth-12 mos.: Care: facilitate practice of vocal skills -Stage 2, 12-24 mos.: Care: facilitate acquisition of sounds and syllables in specific words (a lexical approach; expressive vocab devel helps the acquisition of the rules of speech and lang) -Stage 3, 2-5 yrs.: Care: facilitate the elimination of errors affecting sound classes -Stage 4, 5+ yrs.: Care: facilitate the elimination of errors affecting late acquired consonants, consonant clusters and unstressed sylls in more difficult multisyllabic words
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What are the 4 major Characteristics of Artic and Phon Disorders?
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5. Speech is not due to organic disorders (physical damage to the speech mech., sensory problems, CNS or PNS disorders) 6. Speech is similar to that of typically developing children 7. Speech is not due to dialect 8. Speech is considered disordered either by the client and/or members of their community
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How are Artic Disorders different from Phon Disorders?
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-An articulation disorder involves problems making sounds. Sounds can be substituted, left off, added, changed, etc. -A phonological disorder involves patterns of sound errors, like fronting, backing, etc.
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Differentiate between the organic and non organic etiologies of artic disorders?
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Organic as an identifiable cause; the second is though of no obvious cause and are known as functional articulation disorders in the 70s.
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What is apraxia of speech in adulthood?
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A motor disorder of speech programming; it is controversial. It is a sensorimotor speech disorder; an impairment of the central motor programming for voluntary production of phonemes and the sequencing of muscle movements for the production of words.
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What are the etiologies of apraxia of speech?
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Brain damage due to stroke, trauma, tumors or infection (most likely Broca's area)
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What are the speech characteristics of apraxia of speech in adulthood?
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Articulatory struggle Errors increase with increasing complexity: vowels are easier, consonants are harder and of those, fricatives, affricates and other consonant clusters are the hardest. Errors increase with increasing word length Errors are inconsistent and variable Errors may be anticipatory (hostital) or perseveratory (hospipal) Greater difficulty w/consonants than vowels Greater difficulty w/ initial consonants than final Automatic speech and speaking with familiar listeners may be problem free Visual cues help Errors of transition (st-reet: may be accounted for by cluster simplification)
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What are the associated problems with apraxia of speech?
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oral apraxia, oral-sensory perceptual deficit, aphasia, physical, social and emotional problems
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What are the assessment procedures of apraxia of speech?
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oral assessment, lip, jaw and tongue function. Verbal assessment includes: vowel production, fricatives, affricates and consonant clusters in words repetition of single consonants in a syllable with a neutral vowel (/p/) repetition of multisyllabic sequences (pataka), words (snowflake), and words of increasing length by addition of morphemes (seem, seeming, seemingly) repetition of sentences and picture descriptions frics, affs, cons clus, repetition of sentences & picture descriptions
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What is developmental apraxia of speech?
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not universally accepted. With it there is often 1. a high incidence of oral apraxia, 2. Imitation is effortful and "groping", 3. Unusual substitutions and distortions, 4. Greater difficulty with multisyllabic than monosyllabic words, 5. A number of soft neurological signs, 6. Higher level language difficulties.
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What is the assessment for apraxia of speech?
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thorough articulation test, pataka.
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What is dysarthria?
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disorders of phonation, articulation, resonation and prosody, due to weakness, paresis, incoordination and /or muscle tone abnormalities.
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What are the speech characteristics of dysarthria?
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Flaccid, Spastic, Ataxic, Hypokinetic, Hyperkinetic, Mixed.
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What is the etiology of dysarthria?
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CNS involvement
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What is the assessment of dysarthria?
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Structural and Functional integrity: speech function, orofacial examination, gross motor function including signs of tremor and atrophy: smoothness, range, strength and duration, rate, coordination
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What is cerebral palsy?
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Developmental disability involving lack of motor control; presented most commonly as spasticity or increased muscle tone
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When is it necessary to look beyond Standard Assessment Procedures?
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-Idiosyncratic error patterns are not rare in children. When unusual errors appear, a detailed analysis may show a definite pattern -Examples: vowel height affected use of C (/d/ before high V, /g/ before low V), syllable structure affected error appearance (errors in unstressed syllables) -Assessment strategies should be based on thorough understanding of principles and procedures as well as client needs
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For what purposes should you use the Assessment Results?
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-Interpretation of the results -Making predictions regarding results of intervention. Those are based on stimulability, auditory discrimination and severity of articulation problem. The severity of articulation errors depends on the number and types of errors exhibited -Linguistic complexity may promote articulation errors in some children. Phonological complexity and syntactic complexity may interact showing deficits in both areas. -It is, therefore, necessary to evaluate the language abilities of children with articulation errors
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What is Shriberg & Kwiatkowski's procedures for classifying severity?
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Tape a continuous speech sample. Repeat utterances for later analysis Calculate % of consonants correct from the tape Score the 6 suprasegmentals (loudness, quality, phrasing, stress, rate, pitch) on a 3-point scale Use % of consonants correct as the major factor, but also include age and suprasegmentals in your assessment.
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What are the principles of the Segment Approach in goal selection?
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-Early development sounds vs. later developing sounds -Sounds that the child can produce as substitute, but does not use correctly 1. 20-40% correct production on deep test 2. Correct production is facilitating context 3. The child has the sound in one word position 4. The child can produce the sound in a less phonetically complex context -Sounds for which the child is stimulable (has the ability to imitate). -Sounds that will markedly increase intelligibility 5. Frequently occurring sounds and sounds necessary to make a lexical contrast -Sounds that are important to the child -Sounds that are physiologically easier in a given word position (like frics in initial position)
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What are the principles of the Feature Approach in goal selection?
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Can work on one or more sounds Use above segmental considerations to select key sounds Later developing sounds Distinctive feature theory groups sounds into classes according to the common features that define them (see CNS: 2). If the child's errors can be shown to share a (set of) feature(s) (e.g., +voiced, +continuant), it is hypothesized that the child has difficulty with sounds that share those features. By establishing those features, it is assumed that all sounds that share them will be corrected.
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What are the considerations for targeting a feature or a sound class?
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Sounds that develop a missing feature Sounds that involve earlier acquired features Sounds that will promote generalization of a feature
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What are the principles of the Phonological Process Approach to goal selection?
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The aim is to eliminate the process Selection of sounds I Can work on one or more sounds simultaneously II Select specific key sounds based on the above considerations
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What are the considerations for selecting which processes to target?
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Processes that are normally eliminated early Processes that affect earlier developing sounds Processes that are likely to result in early success Optimal or inconsistent processes Position and context specific processes Processes affecting sounds w/in the child's phonetic inventory Processes affecting sounds for which the child is stimulable. Hodson: select a stimulable sound (as an exemplar of the sound class affected by that process) when targeting processes Process that interfere most with intelligibility Processes that lead to homonymy Processes that affect multiple sounds Processes that are idiosyncratic and unusual
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How is Contextual Analysis used in goal selection?
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-It can identify sounds that don't need to be taught because they exit in the child's inventory in some context. It is used as a measure of consistency of misarticulations. -When contexts can be found in which a sound is produced correctly, they can be used as starting points for therapy. The correct context is used to facilitate production and generalization to other contexts. -The rationale is that it takes less time to correct an inconsistently misarticulate sound (the less stable the error, the easier to correct it). Alternately, some say that it is easier to focus on a stable error pattern.
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What is involved in the process of goal selection based on Productive Phonological Knowledge?
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-Determine the type of knowledge for each sound -Rank knowledge for each sound on a continuum from most to least known -Select sound based on least phonological knowledge -The rationale is that treatment should help the child develop a new skill that is needed and can be used for more than one sound
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How is Productive Phonological Knowledge determined (3 parameters)?
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1. Breadth of the distribution of sounds (phonetic, phonemic and morphemic inventory by word positions and minimal pairs) i) The Phonetic Inventory (includes all the sounds that the child produces, including sounds produced correctly and sounds used as substitutes) ii) The Phonemic Inventory (includes only sounds that are used contrastively by the child. You can test for this by using minimal pairs) 2. The Distribution of sounds in the phonemic inventory (analyze the distribution by word position and morpheme. The word position distribution examines whether a phoneme, like a sound used contrastively, is used in all vs. some word positions. The distribution of a morpheme examines whether a sound is used contrastively in all vs. some target morphemes). 3. Use of phonological rule types: (static) phonotactic rules and (dynamic) allophonic rules 4. Nature of the child's lexical representations (approximation to the adult form)
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What is the difference between the Most Knowledge and Least Knowledge Approach?
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-Most Knowledge: select the new sound so that it shares features w/and is most similar to sounds that the child already produces, like a cognate. -new sound will be acquired w/out great frustration - Limitation is that treatment must proceed in small increments; that is time consuming for the client with multiple misarticulations. -Least Knowledge: select the sound for which the child seems to have the least amount of phonological knowledge. - "automatic" correction of non-targeted error sounds
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List the Syllable Structure Processes?
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Final Consonant Deletion Unstressed Syllable Deletion Cluster Reduction Reduplication Epenthesis Metathesis Coalescence
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List the Substitution Process: Place, Manner, Voicing?
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9. Place 1. Fronting 2. Backing 3. Glottal Replacement 10. Manner 1. Stopping 2. Gliding 3. Vocalization 4. Affrication 5. Deaffrication 6. Denasalization 11. Voicing 1. Prevocalic Voicing 2. Final Consonant Deletion
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Which are the assimilation (harmony) processes?
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-Place Assimilation -Manner Assimilations
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What is the summary analysis of speech samples?
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Comparison to norms Phonetic inventory (list all sounds the child makes, in all positions) Phonetic accuracy Consistency of errors Syllable structure Feature analysis Phonological process analysis Phoneme preferences Intelligibility Severity Stimulability
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Define "dialect" and provide its characteristics?
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-Mutually intelligible forms of a language -Associated with a particular region, social class or ethnic group -Registers depend on participants, setting, topic -Dialect density: the extent to which speakers use the available features in a dialect -Dialects are systematic, with rule governed phonological, semantic, syntactic, pragmatic and proxemics systems
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Differentiate between the artic/phonological disorders and speech differences?
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-To assess L1 only, L2 only, or L1 and L2 we need to 3. Sample the adult speakers of the child's linguistic community 4. Obtain information from interpreter/support personnel 5. Become thoroughly familiar with features of the dialects and language 6. Role of SLP: assess in English and consider the services of an interpreter/translator, bilingual consultant or aide.
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Describe the impact of the phonological system of one language (native of L1) on that of a second language (L2). Address this in terms of: page 345 in text?
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Sounds that exist in both languages 7. AAE and GAE children often exhibit similar phonological patterns with different frequency use Sounds that exist in L1 but not in L2 8. Postvocalic "r" was used for the Spanish flap Sounds that exist in L2 but not in L1 9. Russian influenced English speakers pronounced palatalized consonants in their English Phonotatic rules 10. Sounds that only occur word finally etc nj is only word final sound recognized by Hmong speakers 11. Specific phonemes and allophones in inventories of 2 languages aren't the same. 12. Example: the alveo-palatal affricate found in English is not in the inventory of Cantonese. A native Cantonese-speaking person acquiring English might substitute [ts] for the alveo-palatal affricate because [ts] exists in the inventory of Cantonese and is close to the place of articulation of the English affricate. 13. May have different places of articulation ie [d] is dental in English but alveolar in Spanish Morphophonemic rules 14. The lack of one-to-one correspondence between grapheme and phoneme in English may influence pronunciation. The grapheme "s" in English is pronounced as [s] in basin and another way in the word measure, causing a speaker of Spanish influenced English to pronounce both as [s] Stress, intonation, prosody Also to consider, even if this is not phonology: syntax and sentence structure
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How does the phonological development of children acquiring AAE compare to the phonological development of children acquiring GAE?
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- Optional features include: Word-final cluster reduction (test→tεs) Deletion of /r/ (professor→pəfεsə, throw →θo) Deletion of /l/ in word-final abutting consonants (help) f/th substitution in intervocalic (also v/eth), and word-final position Stopping of word-initial th/eth (the→də) b/v & d/z substitution before syllabic nasals (seven→ sεbən) Metathesis (ask→aks) Suprasegmental phenomena: 1st syll stress, more level and falling final intonation contours - similar phonological patterns with different frequency and use ~ 4-5 years a qualitative difference was present - those with speech delay had more stop errors, fricative and affricate errors in all positions. -AA children with without speech delays had devoicing of final d, sonorant and /r/ related errors.
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What do you know about the acquisition of tones compared to the acquisition of sound segments in typically developing children learning tonal languages?
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-For East Asian Languages tones are semantic differenced indicated by pitch. -Mastery at 8 months before segment -For children learning Mandarin tone was acquired first, followed by syllable final Cs and Vs and finally syllable initial Cs. -High, falling: earlier & easier than rising, contour -Substitution errors existed in the 2, 3-word stages
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What is known about the Phonological development of typically developing bilingual children?
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-more errors, more unusual errors and lower overall intelligibility -influence is bi-directional -Phonemes and allophones may not be the same -Differences in the distribution of sounds (phonotactics) -Cs may have different places of articulation in L1 from L2 (Spanish [d] is interdental, English is alveolar) -Phonological rules may be different -How and when pronunciation is acquired may influence L1 or L2
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How does Coarticulation affect speed "segments"? Provide an example of a coarticulatory effect?
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A single word may not be pronounced the same in all contexts. This is less likely in the single word stage. It can affect it by palatalization, saying mish you instead of miss you. Or by final consonant devoicing, saying leaf instead of leave. Using the /f/ sound instead of the /v/ sound. Dropping the fundamental frequency. Also through voicing of a sound, saying absurd with a /z/ sound rather than absurd with a /s/ sound.
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What is phonology, and of what is a language's phonology comprised?
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-Phonology is the science of speech sounds and patterns. -Each language has its own sound pattern, which is: 15. The set of sounds used in it 16. The acceptable arrangement of those sounds to form words (phonotactics) 17. The various processes by which sounds are added, deleted, or modified
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When examining the levels of organization of speech, what parameters should be considered?
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12. Syllable integrity- can they produce variety of syllables? 13. Phonemic composition- what phonemes go into the syllables? 14. Phonemic properties- have no fricatives at all? 15. Segmental features 16. Articulatory sequence- what sounds can they put together? 17. Acoustic sequence- what sounds can they put together? 18. Suprasegmentals (prosody) 19. Paralinguistic information (emotion and attitude)- problems with this means something else; additional problems
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Compared to adult speech, how is children's speech acoustically different?
answer
More variable in duration and precision Different with respect to coartiuclatory patterns (later in anticipatory coarticulation; later in children) Slower, differs in variability, ie the duration of individual segments varies more than for adults because they are well less controlled and there are differences in patterns of coarticualtion, more mature speakers show increase anticipation in producing a phonetic sequence.
question
What is the overall sequence of acquisition of speech sounds?
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Birth to 10-12 months: cry, gesture, babble, sound play 12-18 months: small vocabulary ~ 50 words 18 months- 4 years: most of the sounds, combined into morphemes, words 4-7 years: phonetic inventory is completed, complex words are formed 7-12 years: refinements, morphophonemic rules, derivations, may relate to reading acquisition 12-16 years: metalinguistic skills, essential for spelling In the book: Phase 1- laying the foundations for speech (birth-1 yr.) Phase 2- Transitioning from words to speech (1-2 yrs.) Phase 3- The growth of the inventory (2-5 yrs.) Phase 4- Mastery of speech and literacy (5+ yrs.)
question
With respect to speech perception, what are the main problems faced by infants?
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-Pitch, fricatives /s-z/, f-th, multisyllables are difficult for them because of high F. -Fricatives are usually among the last elements to be attained. -Linguistic perception= auditory perception & identification of contrasts btwn sounds, and also -representation & access for recognition of sound patterns. -Research with young children: cognitive capacities (attn) & consistent behavioral responses are limited before age 2-3. -Full vs. partial linguistic perception: changing internal representations of sounds for many years, from partially to fully correct (eg f-th confusions).
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What is the role of prosody in speech perception by infants (1990s views)?
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-It facilitates identification of units; clauses (by 6 months), phrasal units (by 9 months). -After 6 months, infants begin to attend to segmental patterns as well as speech melody.
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What cognitive aspects are involved in learning to speak?
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-Learning to produce a variety of vocal sounds -Matching adult sound patterns to own productions -Associating certain adult sound patterns with situations (situation-bound word use) -Understanding that sound pattern production can be used to share attention or for requests, etc. (get -attention and direct it to something you like) -Use adult words to communicate in novel settings (referential and symbolic use of words)
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In what ways is the infant vocal tract different from the adult vocal tract?
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-Shorter vocal tract, pharyngeal cavity, tongue mass forward in oral cavity; gradual slope (no L) or pharyngeal channel; high larynx (C shaped); epiglottis close to velopharynx.
question
What are Oller's Stages of speech production?
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1. Phonation stage (0-1 month) VF vibration 2. Goo/cooing stage (2-3 months) control of voicing (loud/soft, on/off) 3. Expansion stage (4-6 months) squealing, growling, yelling, raspberries (bilabial trills), fully resonant nuclei, marginal babbling. Triangle of owles, aiu 4. Canonical (reduplicated) babbling (6-8 months) true C and fully resonant nucleus. CV sequence -Stops and nasals (or nasalized stops) + V (max contrast -Accomplishments indicate the infant's advances in motor control, visual-auditory perception integration of CV sequences and global imitation of adult vocalization -Deaf children do not produce canonical babbling within the first year (differentiates the children) 5. Variegated babbling (9-15 months) -Systematic, continuous and self directed exploration -Universal production patterns: language specific differences in production noted at 10 months.
question
What prosodic developments are seen in early vocal production in infants?
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-Failing pitch (F0) is the natural result of a decline in sub glottal pressure and of relaxation in vf tension. -Jargon: variegated babbling with adult like pitch shifts and rhythm.
question
What are the main stages of the Transition Period from Babbling to Speech?
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1. Relating sound patterns to meaning: 5-11 mos. 2. Perception in the transition period: entry into the native language: by 11 mos. babies recognize familiar words 3. Protowords: grunts as precursors of word production: consistent vocal forms and gesture -14-16 mos.: function is to share focus of attention or to request
question
What are the prosodic characteristics of speech in the first years of life?
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-Prosodic organization begins ~18 mos. -Children tend to omit syllables preceding the stressed syllable, but rarely the stressed or the final syllable -After ~50 words children exhibit the prosody of their L1.
question
How do infants systematize and reorganize their speech production patterns from the word level to the segmental level?
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-Easiest targets are whole words rather than segments -Production of a segment may vary rather than segments -Word shapes are holistically similar to adult shapes -Work forms may be interrelated, favoring a template -After 50 words a systematization of phonological representations begins; overregulation, "regression"
question
What is known about the interaction of perception and production in infants?
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- Linguistic perception=auditory perception and identification of contrasts between sounds. Also representation and access for recognition of sound patterns. Behavioral responses are limited before age 2-3. -Full vs. partial linguistic perception: changing internal representations of sounds for many years from partially to fully correct.
question
What makes use of PPs convenient for analyzing children's speech production patterns?
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-PP of a child may be not only "production" rules, but rather they may reflect perception or interpretation rules (like errors in the child's internal representation of speech sounds) -A descriptive convenience rather than a reflection of the child's mental activity -Error Pattern (Phonological Processes) Identification: a systematic sound change that affects 1. a class of sounds, 2. a particular sequence of sounds, or 3. the syllable structure of words 4. Provides a description of the child's overall phonological system 5. Potential for facilitating treatment efficiency 6. Various tests exist (Khan & Lewis, 1986, 2002, Hodson, 2003, etc.); analysis of spontaneous speech samples can also supply the necessary information What is Therapy/Intervention ? ~~An intensive stimulation designed to facilitate development or to effect a change: Direct/Indirect
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define treatment?
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teaching, training, any type of remedial or rehabilitative work, and all attempts at helping people by changing their behaviors or teaching new skill.
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What are the overall aims of intervention ?
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Eliminate/change the underlying problem. Change the disorder for better communication. Teach compensatory strategies that one can function better with. Modify the environment or the contexts in which the child has to function.
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How do you change the disorder ?
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Induction intervention determines whether the outcome is reached. Facilitation accelerates the rate of intervention but the outcome is not change. Maintenance preserves a behavior that would otherwise decrease or disappear.
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In general, what is the content of most kinds of therapy ?
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Selecting goals( functional aims), Strategies for selecting specific goals (Remedial, Developmental, Hierarchical), Goal attack strategies (vertical, horizontal, cycles), Number of treatment targets (deep 1-2, wide 3-4, cycles), Treatment context (Drill w/external, Drill play, Structured play, Play), Treatment Procedures((Instrumental: leading to change, Elicitation: provide opportunities to try and practice the target, Criterion: Criteria that is used to assess progress and change)
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Why is monitoring treatment progress important ?
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establishes data on the progress of the client from the baseline and describes the methods that work or don't work.
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How do you monitor progress ?
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by % consonants correct, % intelligibility, rating skills during communication, and Probe for generalizations.
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What are issues to pay attention to when monitoring ?
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Some issues to pay attention to are criterion and starting level (Isolation, syllable, word)
question
What is the Pragmatic Approach to treatment of articulatory and phonological disorders and what is its premise ?
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It is a procedure that treats APD in a social and communicative context. The premise is communication centered instruction.
question
What additional facts (to traditional methods) are present in Diagnosis of Communication Centered Articulation Therapy ?
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Case history: communicative responses the child has the opportunity to use, Assessment: the degree of success in daily communication, total comm. System analysis Concurrent Diagnostic Teaching Exit evaluation: done in their environment and teach parents and teaches to evaluate child's artic accuracy
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What is included in the concurrent diagnostic teaching ?
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The adjustment of teaching objective and procedures suggest by information from current diagnosis.
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What additional facts (to traditional methods) are present in Instructional Procedures of Communication Centered Articulation Therapy ?
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Lesson plan for group or individual: communicative competence, speech production, various categories instead of just production related. Activities including rehearsals of concepts, language forms, and function to be used speech sounds, kinds of comm. Interchange) and activities. Home instruction
question
What is speech perception training ?
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It is the training of differentiations and identifying specific sounds through auditory perception and production.
question
What are the possible five levels of articulation breakdown and the corresponding functions they affect ?
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APPAA Auditory input - sound discrimination Phonological system - rules of the system Phonetic system - link the system to phonetic specificaitons Articulatory programming - plan the motor acts Articulatory execution - execute the motor movements for sound production
question
What are the guidelines for selection of contrastive items in testing auditory discrimination ?
answer
Items should be relevant to the sounds the child has difficulty with Minimal pairs items should contain the child's specific errors in the contexts that are misarticulated Specific auditory discrimination tests can be designed for each child Performance on auditory discrimination tests of children w/moderate and severe articulation errors is lower than that of children w/out artic problems.
question
What are some of the reasons that no correlation has been found between auditory discrimination & articulatory performance in some studies ?
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Inadequate sampling of auditory contrasts leads to paired contrasts that do not consider the child's artic error type and that leads to developmental constraints.
question
How would you determine if a child's problem reflects difficulty learning the phonological rules of the language vs. difficulty discriminating sounds ?
answer
Use context free sentences in which both target & error sounds are appropriate (rake, wake) and ask child to choose by pointing to one set of pictures (phonological performance test) See if the child can detect mispronounced words. If he does not we infer that these sounds are not contrastive for
question
How would you determine if a child's problem reflects difficulty learning the phonological rules of the language vs. difficulty with the phonetic system ?
answer
phonological performance test, but has difficulty between a target sound and the error form-phonetic level. no standardized test to diagnose.
question
What is the basic question learning theory attempts to answer ?
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How organisms learn and how we can control and predict behavior ?456 Behavior appears to be controlled by its consequences that increase or decrease probability of occurrence. Learning a new behavior involves successive approximations to the behavior. Performing the behavior in the appropriate circumstances.
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What are the steps to identifying a target behavior ?
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Select a target behavior Describe that behavior in objective and measurable steps Get baselines specify the type of behavior that is expected after tx.
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What are antecedent events ?
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Stimuli that evoke responses that includes cues and prompts
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What are the Types of antecedent events ?
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Auditory stimuli: spoken instructions and models Visual stimuli: visual models, cues, diagrams, demonstrations Kinesthetic stimuli: manipulation of the child's speech mechanism
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What are consequent events and what is their role in learning ?
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It is a stimuli presented after a response. Increasing behavior rate
question
What is positive reinforcement ?
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immediately follows a response and increases the behavior above the level of the baseline. `
question
What constitutes a reinforcer ?
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Is a necessary tool for effectiveness Must be able to be controlled by the clinician Should not wear out or have undesirable side effects.
question
How do you increase the probability that a behavior will recur ?
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The ultimate goal is for self reinforcement. The child will be able to gradually given control of the reinforcement procedures, so that they self-reinforce. The frequency with which a reinforcer is presented
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What is the best type of frequency for a reinforcer ?
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Variable ratio is the best: interval schedles generate lower response rates
question
How would you decrease the probability that a behavior will recur ?
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Extinction response rate decreases when reinforcement is removed Time out a period during which interaction with the child is limited and opportunities for obtaining reinforcements are eliminated. Punishment a stimulus presented immediately after a response & results in decreasing the frequency of occurrence of the behavior. Response cost a reinforcer is removed following an undesired response.
question
When should you ignore unsuccessful productions in articulation therapy ?
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Ignoring unsuccessful attempts initially in order to establish a positive attitude toward artic training for the child.
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What are behavioral probes ?
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Periodic tallying of the behavior (at the end of the session)
question
What is Van Riper's (1939) taxonomy ?
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client must be aware of the problem, must then learn discrimination skills, production of the target in isolation, syllables, words in initial position, final & then medial position, phrases, polysyllabic words and clusters, sentences & finally spontaneous speech.
question
What are the usual parts of instructional objectives ?
answer
Do statement exact description of what the client is expected to do Condition statement specifies when the behavior is to occur. Accuracy statement %, ratio, deadline Terminal objective, short range behavior state at the time of dismissal
question
What is the usefulness of analyzing a task into its constituent components ?
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The task must be analyzed in its constituent components, which will then be addressed in tx in order. (van ripper)
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What is meant by "management of consequent events" ?
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Initially every correct response in reinforced. Later the reinforcement schedule is adjusted (usually variable ratio).
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What is the function of criterion tests ?
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Also called Behavioral probes, are used frequently to show progress (3 - 30 items).
question
What is involved in transfer and maintenance of behavior ?
answer
Stimulus generalization same response to all stimuli w/common features Phonemic contexts learning s generalizes z Situational contexts Tx should be similar to stimuli seen in other situations to maximize chances of generalization. (Playground, classroom...)
question
What are five of the elements that a therapy approach must contain in order to be considered a behavior modification approach ?
answer
Establish a baseline prior to Tx Target is identifiable as correct/incorrect Reinforcement schedule specified ID series of tasks; easier to harder must be identified The exit behavior specified: performance on a final criterion test
question
What are some of the golden rules of behavior modification ?
answer
Immediacy instant of a reward is important Attention provide as a reward, careful about what you give attention to Selective Reward reward only the target behavior Small steps toward desired behavior, reward each step Imitation relevant cues
question
What are the main steps of the traditional approach to treatment of articulation and phonological disorders ?
answer
Sensory perceptual training Identification/Stimulation/Discrimination Production training Sound establishment Context/Phonetic placement/Sound approximation Production training Syllables/Words/Phrases/Sentences/Conversation Transfer and carryover the skills in clinic, used in conversation Maintenance
question
What is the rationale of the systematic multiple phoneme approach to treatment of APD ?
answer
Maintains the traditional steps of tx somewhat differently. Auditory discrimination begins after production is well established. At that point the client self-monitors. (May be time-saving.) Each step is outlined (behaviorally), criteria for mastery are given, record keeping is a must. WWA (whole word accuracy) in conversational speech is assessed (% correct words)
question
What is the rationale of the sensory motor approach to production training ?
answer
The syllable is the primary unit of articulation & coarticulatory effects are taken into account. Starts with the correct production of error phones in various coarticulatory contexts.
question
For whom are Linguistically Based Intervention Approaches best suited ?
answer
Children with severe articulation Disorders.
question
What are some of the general considerations in treating Phonological Disorders ?
answer
Linguistic approaches to Tx are based on the assumption that the child needs to learn the phonological rules of his language. Children w/severe phonological disorders also have problems learning other rules of language (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic).
question
Children with severe articulation disorders may have reduced speech because ?
answer
a. nobody understands them anyway, b. they are embarrassed about the way they sound, or c. there is an underlying language delay (so there is no FCD rather the kid has not mastered pasts, possessives, plurals, and 3rd person singular morphemes). Reasons to use the linguistic approach are designed to help the child learn the system. Phonemes are targeted in groups or by classes in a multi-phonemic approach.
question
What kinds of children may not be good candidates for the multi-phonemic approaches ?
answer
Children who exhibit only a couple of errors Children whose articulation disorder is secondary to an organic disorder (however, patterns of misarticulations may exist in these children and the multi-phonemic approaches can be useful) Children whose errors form no discernible pattern.
question
Distinctive feature approach ?
answer
features at the world level since features cannot be separated from the word Once the child learns the feature that will generalize to all other phonemes that carry the feature. Choose features that will help the child the most
question
What is the Process of elimination approach ?
answer
also works at the word level and wants to choose the goals that will help the child the most however, problem is rule-learning, the problem is phonemic (not phonetic, so tx is done at the word level). Intelligibility is scores and considered in the way therapy is given.
question
What are some of the issues concerning generalization (assumptions, types, theoretical implications) ?
answer
Generalization may not be complete and consistent, so training several exemplars of a feature or contrast may be necessary. Generalization training should start early in tx: give the child limited experience with other phonemes in the same class.
question
Regarding remediation strategies, what are the 3 goals that Ingram (1976) proposes ?
answer
Elimination of instability in the child's speech productions. Elimination of homonyms (words should have different forms). Establishment of contrasts within the child's system.
