question

Discospondylitis

answer

Inflammation due to infection of vertebral articulations

question

Intervertebral Disc Disease

answer

Herniation/prolapse of disc material into spinal canal

question

canine vertebral formula

answer

C-7, T-13, L-7, S-3

question

What is the function of the meninges?

answer

Provide physical protection & support Allow the carriage of blood through blood vessels Contains the CSF

question

Pia mater

answer

Innermost membrane surrounding the brain and spinal chord containing a network of blood vessels that nourish the nervous tissue

question

arachnoid

answer

Middle membrane surrounding the brain and spinal chord - looks like a spider web

question

dura mater

answer

Surrounding the whole brain and spinal chord is the strongest layer

question

Subarachnoid space

answer

The pia mater and the arachnoid make up the space wherein flows part of the cerebral spinal fluid exists

question

Where is the sub dural space?

answer

Space between the Dura and the arachnoid

question

Falx cerebri

answer

found in the longitudinal fissure between the cerebral hemispheres -- divides the brain in to left and right hemispheres

question

Tentorum cerebelli

answer

separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum

question

Describe the spinal cord basic anatomy.

answer

Grey matter is in the darker portion, white matter is surrounding it

question

Ventral Grey Matter Horn

answer

Motor movement is controlled there

question

Ventral root

answer

contains axons of somatic motor neurons and sometimes visceral motor neurons that control peripheral effectors; each segment of the spinal cord is associated with a pair of these

question

Spinal Cord

answer

A column-shaped continuation of the brainstem (medulla), extending from the foramen magnum (base of the skull) to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. Composed of centrally-located gray matter and the surrounding white matter

question

Lower motor neuron

answer

Lives in the ventral grey matter horn, leaves through the ventral root second order- originates in brainstem or spinal cord (cranial nerve nuclei or ventral horn of spinal cord)-supply effectors (muscles) to stimulate movement-axon of this motor neuron leads the rest of the way to the muscle or other target organ- damage produces spastic paralysis

question

Dorsal Root

answer

Sensory neurons come in to the spinal cord through this root. (receives information regarding touch and sensation)

question

Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord

answer

A butterfly-shaped region surrounding the central canal, it consists primarily of neuron (nerve) cell bodies

question

Dorsal Root Ganglion

answer

located on dorsal root, cell bodies of the afferent nerves (somatic and visceral sympathetic)

question

White Matter of the Spinal Cord

answer

The outer region of the spinal cord, mostly composed of myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibres (axons) that carry impulses to and from the brain. Its regional divisions (dorsal, lateral and ventral) are called columns, or tracts, in which specific types of information are relayed along the spinal cord, e.g. sensory vs motor. Contains mostly axons and dendrites.

question

If you damage the spinal chord at C7, will this affect reflexes in the thoracic limb?

answer

Yes, there were be damage at that segmental level specifically - so reflexes will be off

question

Spinal reflex

answer

reflex in which important interconnections and processing occur inside the spinal cord; range from monosynaptic to polysynaptic

question

White Matter of the Spinal Cord

answer

The outer region of the spinal cord, mostly composed of myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibres (axons) that carry impulses to and from the brain. Its regional divisions (dorsal, lateral and ventral) are called columns, or tracts, in which specific types of information are relayed along the spinal cord, e.g. sensory vs motor.

question

Spinal Cord Enlargements

answer

There are two regional enlargements of the spinal cord for the innervation of the limbs: · Cervical : composed of cord sections C6, C7, C8, T1, (T2). · Lumbosacral : composed of cord sections L5, L6, L7, S1 (Enlargement L4 to S3)

question

Dorsal Root Ganglia

answer

A swelling located at the entrypoint into the spinal cord of the dorsal root of the spinal nerve, containing the cell bodies of afferent somatic sensory neurons, i.e. neurons concerned with sensing touch, pressure, vibrations, temperature, pain, and myotactic positioning (e.g. Golgi Tendon Organ receptors).

question

Dermatome

answer

circumscribed skin area that is supplied mainly from one spinal cord segment through a particular spinal nerve

question

Mixed Spinal Nerve

answer

where the ventral and dorsal roots pass through the intervertebral foramen and come in close proximity to one another. Contains both motor and sensory nerve fibers

question

Cerebral Spinal Fluid

answer

* A fluid produced by the choroid plexus within the ventricular system of the brain. * CSF is characterized by having low protein, few cells, and a low number of ions

question

What makes white matter?

answer

Astrocytes

question

What makes grey matter?

answer

Primarily Schwann cells

question

How is CSF characterized?

answer

having low protein, few cells, and a low number of ions.

question

Spinal Tracts

answer

The white columns of the spinal cord that provide two-way conduction paths to and from the brain; ascending tract carries information to the brain, whereas descending tracts conduct impulses from the brain

question

How do you check for reflex response in areas of the trunk which are not serviced by an enargement area?

answer

Use a pinprick sensation test to see when the animal reacts. This is called a dermatome

question

Dermatome

answer

circumscribed skin area that is supplied mainly from one spinal cord segment through a particular spinal nerve

question

Choroid Plexus

answer

capillary-rich folds of membrane in the ventricles, covered by a thin cuboidal membrane. produces CSF - squeezes out fluid

question

What are the two places in the spinal cord which are action sensitive? (high traffic?)

answer

The places (enlargements) which innervate the hind legs (Lumbosacral) and the front legs(Cervicalthoracic). These areas are larger because there is more grey matter.

question

What sections are the cervicalthoracic enlargement composed of?

answer

composed of cord sections C6, C7, C8, T1, (T2) (know the ones in the brackets as well)

question

What sections are the lumbosacral enlargement compsed of?

answer

composed of cord sections L5, L6, L7, S1 (some say L4 to S3)

question

Intervertebral disc disease

answer

Degenerative changes increase with repetitive compression (e.g. heavy lifting in flexion) or trauma (e.g. fall); degenerative changes may be asymptomatic

question

Non-communicating Hydrocephalus

answer

increase in CSF volume and pressure due to obstructed CSF flow within the ventricular system (most often at the cerebral aqueduct). Pressure increases inside the ventricular system relative to the subarachnoid space. - rapidly developing

question

Communicating Hydrocephalus

answer

similar to non-communicating, BUT due to problems with CSF uptake at arachnoid granulations. Pressure increased outside and inside ventricular system. - slowly developing

question

Arachnoid Granulations

answer

specialized regions of the arachnoid containing microscopic tubules and venules with modified endothelium to allow passive uptake of CSF.

question

What is the CSF circulatory flow pattern?

answer

1. Choroid Plexus 2. Cerebral Aqueduct 3. Fourth Ventricle 4. Foramina of Luska 5. Subarachnoid Space (between arachnoid & pia) 6. Arachnoid Granulations 7. Dural Venous Sinus (pooled aggregates of veins, reabsorption) a) Dorsal Sagittal Venous Sinus b) Transverse Sinus - in the Tentorium Cerebelli. 8. Blood Stream

question

Cauda Equina

answer

bunch of nerve fibers at the end of the spinal cord that appear like a horse's tail

question

Why do some come off prior to the disc and sometimes after the disc?

answer

The discrepancy at C8

question

Ventral spinal artery

answer

Follows ventral surface of cord and provides blood supply to the spinal cord

question

Paired dorsolateral spinal arteries

answer

runs along base of dorsal roots of spinal nerves and provides blood supply to the spinal cord

question

How is blood supply delivered to the spinal cord?

answer

Segmentally supplied by branches of the vertebral artery (in cervical and anterior thoracic regions), the intercostal artery (in thoracic region), and the aorta (in lumbar region) that feed into three arteries that run the length of the cord:

question

How do reflex transmissions get into the spinal cord?

answer

If information is getting on to and off of the spinal cord 'highway' at the same spot, then they don't use tracts

question

Fibrocartilaginous Embolic Myelopathy (FCEM)

answer

fibrocartilaginous emboli plug a radicular artery, resulting in the vascular embarrassment of a segment of cord.

question

Somatotopic

answer

different parts of a given region associated with distinct parts of the body, both functionally and anatomically.

question

Contralateral

answer

on or relating to the opposite side (of the body)

question

Decussates

answer

cross from one side of the CNS to the other

question

Where is the primary neuron's (nerve) cell body ALWAYS found?

answer

Dorsal Root Ganglion

question

Where does the primary neuron ALWAYS enter the spinal cord?

answer

The dorsal root

question

IPSILATERAL

answer

on or relating to the same side (of the body)

question

What is the exception where the axon enters the spinal cord and ascends on the same side?

answer

unconscious proprioception

question

Conscious Sensation

answer

awareness -preceived by cerebral cortex - exteroceptive - proprioceptive

question

Unconscious Proprioception

answer

Hind Limbs: dorsal spinocerebellar and ventral spinocerebellar tracts Front Limbs: Rostral spinocerebellar tracts

question

Proprioception

answer

the ability to sense the position and location and orientation and movement of the body and its parts

question

The Touch/Pressure tracts are carried in the same tracts as what?

answer

Proprioception (i.e. Fasciculus Gracilis) Note that very light touch is in the Spinothalamic tracts

question

Dorsal Column

answer

Located at the most dorsal aspect of the spinal cord, it includes the medial Fasciculus Gracilis (hindlimbs, caudal to T6) and the more lateral Fasciculus Cuneatus (forelimbs, cranial to T6).

question

Fasciculus Cuneatus is a dorsal column which tend get sensory information (conscious proprioception - throacic limbs) from what region?

answer

Forelimbs, cranial to T6

question

Fasciculus Cuneatus

answer

(conscious proprioception) First-order sensory neurons contained in the dorsal funiculus that project to the nucleus cuneatus and that convey the modalities of conscious proprioception and tactile sensation from the ipsilateral side of the upper limb.

question

If you see an animal with conscious proprioception, what can you assume?

answer

Stumbling, issues with proprioception, doesn't react to knuckling response very quickly. Issues are found on both left and right sides (bilateral).

question

Fasciculus Gracilis

answer

(conscious proprioception - pelvic limbs) This tract extends to all levels of the spinal cord and contains fibers from the lower and upper limbs. Mediates conscious proprioception that include kinesthetics and discriminative touch (Generally - hindlimbs, caudal to T6)

question

Ventrolateral Tract

answer

Located in the ventrolateral areas of the cord's white matter. Carries pain and temperature sensations in fibres of moderate or small diameter and myelination.

question

What other problems will you see (besides a bilateral problem) when there is a problem in the spinal cord?

answer

Ataxia (hind end wobbley, scuffing of feet, tripping over its own feet)

question

Spinal Ataxia

answer

inability to coordinate voluntary muscle movements

question

If an animal has a problem in the spinal chord it will have:

answer

a) bilateral signs b) ataxia (can be subtle)

question

Ascending Reticular Activating System (RAS)

answer

afferent fibers running through the reticular formation that influence physiological arousal, without these you have continuous sleep

question

Central Nervous System

answer

Nervous tissue which lies within the brain and spinal cord.

question

Peripheral Nervous System

answer

Nervous tissue which lies outside the brain and spinal cord.

question

Peripheral Nerve

answer

A collection of axons within the peripheral nervous system which may carry afferent impulses (sensory nerve), efferent impulses (motor nerve) or both (mixed nerve). NB: A mixed nerve has axons which are sensory, and different axons which are motor.

question

Upper Motor Neuron

answer

Refers to all the neurons in the series from the brain outwards, except the final neuron which directly contacts the muscle. Any of the tracts from the brain which stay in the spinal cord (they can have synapses along the way)

question

Lower Motor Neuron

answer

The neuron in a motor pathway (somatic) which leaves the spinal cord and travels, via the ventral root, to the target muscle. (Can in some cases come out of the CNS)

question

Reflexes

answer

A reflex is an automatic response to a stimulus (higher centres not required), e.g. for a spinal reflex arc, the decision to react is made at the level of the spinal cord, allowing an extremely rapid response without having to wait for input from the brain.

question

Brachial Plexus

answer

A pattern of organization of the peripheral nerves from spinal cord levels *C5 to T2* in which spinal nerves coalesce in a specific manner to allow innervation (sensory and motor) of specific regions/muscles by nerves from more than one spinal level

question

Lumbosacral Plexus

answer

A pattern of organization of the peripheral nerves from spinal cord levels *L4 to S2 * in which spinal nerves coalesce in a specific manner to allow innervation (sensory and motor) of specific regions/muscles by nerves from more than one spinal level

question

Radial Nerve

answer

largest branch of the brachial plexus, composed of C7, C8, T1

question

Sciatic Nerve

answer

arises from the sacral plexus and passes about halfway down the thigh where it divides into the common peroneal and tibial nerves (comprises L6, L7, S1)

question

Withdrawl Reflex

answer

Pinch the animal and look for the animal to withdraw its limb. Look for two things: 1. Withdrawl of the limb (multisynaptic relfex) 2. Reaction of the animal

question

Skeletomotor neuron (alpha motor neuron)

answer

* Innervates ordinary skeletal muscle, a.k.a. extrafusal motor fibres. * Often referred to as a motor neuron (motoneuron). * Has a large diameter axon and is therefore a fast conductor of APs. * Classed as an A alpha neuron and, as a result, is often referred to as an alpha motoneuron.

question

Fusimotor neuron (gamma motor neuron)

answer

* Innervates the intrafusal fibre which forms part of the muscle spindle. * Axon is thinner and slower conducting. * Classification as the A gamma neuron leads to it being referred to as the gamma motoneuron.

question

alpha motor neuron

answer

A lower motor neuron that goes to an extrafusal fibre and causes contraction

question

gamma motor neuron

answer

Goes to an extrafusal fibre resets the tension

question

muscle spindle

answer

* a small striated muscle, the intrafusal muscle fibre, which has a stretchable middle portion (almost like a spring). * the annulospiral receptor, coils of sensory nerve endings wound around the central stretchable portion of the intrafusal fibre. * a fibrous capsule around the spindle that attaches indirectly to bone.

question

What does the muscle spindle detect?

answer

The muscle spindle detects stretch (of itself and its surrounding muscle body) by responding to an increase in muscle length - elongation of the stretchable central portion stimulates the coiled annulospiral receptor.

question

What is the first thing to do when a case comes in (and details of it)?

answer

Take a case history * Appetite * Attitude * Pain * Similar situation in the past

question

Corticospinal tract

answer

any of the important motor nerves on each side of the central nervous system that run from the sensorimotor areas of the cortex through the brainstem to motor neurons of the cranial nerve nuclei and the ventral horn of the spinal cord

question

Name 3 major descending pathways

answer

Rubrospinal tract Reticulospinal tract Vestibulospinal tract

question

Name 2 minor descending pathways

answer

Corticospinal tract Tectospinal tract

question

What are the enlargements that innervate the forlimbs, and what is it called?

answer

C5-T2, Cervicothoracic enlargement

question

Spinal segment

answer

region of cord from which a spinal nerve arises

question

Describe the recombination of the nerves that leave the spinal cord

answer

Although nerves leave from their named spinal segments, they will join neighbouring nerves to create a peripheral nerve that innervates a given muscle

question

Brachial Plexus

answer

a network of nerves formed by cervical and thoracic spinal nerves and supplying the arm and parts of the shoulder

question

Which spinal nerves contribute to the suprascapular nerve?

answer

(C5), 6, 7

question

Which spinal nerves contribute to the subscapular nerve?

answer

C6, C7

question

Which spinal nerves contribute to the musculocutaneous nerve?

answer

C6,7,8

question

Which spinal nerves contribute to the axillary nerve?

answer

(C6), 7, 8

question

Which spinal nerves contribute to the radial nerve?

answer

C7, C8, T1,(2)

question

Brachial plexus e____

answer

?? problem with nerves being stretched in limbs...

question

Which spinal nerves contribute to the median nerve?

answer

C8, T1, (2)

question

Which spinal nerves contribute to the ulnar nerve?

answer

C8, T1, (2)

question

Nerve roots are _____ to regenerate

answer

slow

question

What are the 3 events that happen after a sublethal injury of an axon?

answer

Degeneration Development of growth processes Re-establishment of contact (synapse) with target (muscle, other neuron)

question

Describe degeneration of an axon

answer

local anterograde (towards the axon terminal), and retrograde (towards the cell body)

question

What is development of new growth processes in a neuron that has been damaged due to?

answer

nerve growth factors and neurotrophins

question

Neurotrophins

answer

chemicals that promote neuron growth, required for the maintenance of sympathetic ganglia, and required for mature sensory neurons to regenerate after injury

question

Lower motor neuron

answer

second order- originates in brainstem or spinal cord (cranial nerve nuclei or anterior horn of spinal cord)-supply effectors (muscles) to stimulate movement-axon of this motor neuron leads the rest of the way to the muscle or other target organ- damage produces spastic paralysis

question

Transneuronal degeneration

answer

the intermediate neuron's death leads to adjacent neurons' deaths e.g. optic nerve

question

primary neuron

answer

also called first order neuron; functions as a sensory pathway neuron; originates in the root ganglia of spinal nerves; projects to the secondary neuron; the dendrites of this sensory neuron are part of the receptor that detects a specific stimulus.

question

reticular formation

answer

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

question

Schiff-Sherrington response

answer

seen when the animal is in lateral recumbency. With damage to the propriospinal tract (the peri-gray white matter in the T3 to L3 spinal cord), the front leg exhibit extensor hypertonicity. The fore legs are not paralyzed; but, when left alone, will extend. The other component of the Schiff-Sherrington response is paralysis caudal to the lesion. This is due to the damage of the other white matter tracts. This is generally a sign of severe spinal cord damage, if both fore leg extensor hypertonicity and rear leg paralysis are seen, since the propriospinal tract is so deeply located within the white matter.

question

What segements of the spinal cord does the Femoral nerve come out of?

answer

L4, L5 L6 -; key spinal cord segment and nerve is L5 (Patellar reflex)

question

What segements of the spinal cord does the Sciatic nerve come out of?

answer

L6, L7, S1 (S2) -; key spinal nerve is L7 (flexor reflex)

question

What 4 tests do we use to evaluate the cotex?

answer

1. Menace response 2. Nasal septum response 3. Evaluating mentation a. thalamo-cortex - confusion, disorientation, changes in personality/behaviour b. brainstem - somnolence 4. Knuckling

question

Cortical ataxia

answer

Shows as some shaking and unsureness (some people debate that it doesn't exist)

question

polyneuropathy

answer

disease of many nerves (most often occurs as a side effect of diabetes mellitus, but may also occur as a result of drug therapy, critical illness such as sepsis, or carcinoma; exhibiting symptoms of weakness, distal sensory loss and burning)

question

Name 3 non-neurologic causes of knuckling

answer

1. Orthopedic disease • Metabolic • Hip dysplasia • Tendon rupture • Degenerative joint disease 2. Metabolic disease, e.g. weakness 3. Pain, e.g. fractures

question

What are the motor pathways

answer

...

question

Corticospinal

answer

direct control of movements below the head

question

Vestibulospinal

answer

transmits motor impulses that maintain muscle tone and activate ipsilateral limb and trunk extensor muscles and muscles that move head; in this way helps maintain balance during standing and moving

question

Reticulospinal

answer

descending tract whose fibers conduct motor impulses to sweat glands and muscles to control tone

question

Tectospinal

answer

reflexive orientating of head, trunk, eyes to visual or auditory stimulus

question

Rubrospinal

answer

origin: nucleus ruber (red nucleus) o influence foot musculature. funct:strongly influenced by cerebellum and cerebral cortex for muscle tone control primarily contralateral foot (all 4) musculature.

question

How is forelimb lameness characterized?

answer

head bobbing. The head is raised when the lame leg is on the ground and dropped when the sound limb is supporting the body.

question

Hypertrophic osteodystrophy

answer

seen in large and giant breed; young dogs in the rapid growth phase from 4 to 8 months · problems with the growing bones at the physis · extremely painful · not ataxic - predictable footfall, not floating in space

question

opisthotonus

answer

A type of spasm of the neck and back extensor muscles in which the head and heels arch backward in extreme hyperextension and the body forms a reverse bow.

question

How is hind-limb lameness characterized?

answer

by dropping of the forequarters as a result of overreaching by both forelimbs and by maintaining the head at a lower position than normal. Some breeds raise their tails when a lame hind limb is on the ground and drop it when the sound limb is on the ground.

question

Name the two main categories of proprioceptive fibres (ascending tracts) and the 2 major examples for each

answer

- Conscious Proprioception • Fasciculus cuneatus: thoracic limbs • Fasciculus gracilis: pelvic limbs - Reflex Proprioception • Rostral spinocerebellar tract: thoracic limbs • Dorsal & ventral spinocerebellar tract: pelvic limbs

question

Name the pathways that contain the nociceptive fibres.

answer

• Spinothalamic pathways (anterolateral system)

question

Spinothalamic

answer

passes up the anterior and lateral columns of the spinal cord, carries signals for main, temperature, pressure, tickle, itch, and light or crude (vaguely identifiable) touch - first order neurons end in the dorsal horn or the spinal cord, second order decussate to the opposite side of the spinal cord and there form the ascending spinothalamic tract and lead all the way to the thalamus - third order neurons continue from there to the cerebral cortex

question

What are signs that you have a lesion in C1-C5?

answer

UMN signs: 1. Spastic paresis/paralysis 2. Normal - hyperreflexia 3. Disuse atrophy (late & mild) 4. Normal to increased tone • Sensory loss signs:(same for all spinal regions) 1. Proprioceptive deficits/ataxia 2. Loss of nociception

question

What are signs that you have a lesion in C6-T2?

answer

LMN signs: 1. Flaccid paresis/paralysis 2. Hypo- to areflexia 3. Neurogenic atrophy (early & severe) 4. Hypo- to atonia • Sensory loss signs:(same for all spinal regions) 1. Proprioceptive deficits/ataxia 2. Loss of nociception

question

What are signs that you have a lesion in T3-L3?

answer

• UMN signs: 1. Spastic paresis/paralysis 2. Normal - hyperreflexia 3. Disuse atrophy (late & mild) 4. Normal - increased tone • Sensory loss signs: 1. Proprioceptive deficits/ataxia 2. Loss of nociception

question

What are signs that you have a lesion in L4-S3? (pelvic limbs and perineum)

answer

LMN signs: 1. Flaccid paresis/paralysis 2. Hypo- to areflexia 3. Neurogenic atrophy (early & severe) 4. Hypo- to atonia • Sensory loss signs:(same for all spinal regions) 1. Proprioceptive deficits/ataxia 2. Loss of nociception

question

Name 6 structures involved in spinal pain:

answer

- Bone ** - Nerve roots ** - Meninges ** - Ligaments - Articulations (synovial) - Disc annulus

question

What are 4 clinical signs of neck pain?

answer

• Stiff neck posture, low head carriage • Intermittent muscle spasms • Pain on vertebral palpation • Pain on vertical/horizontal flexion (don't do this if other signs present!) General Pain: - Increased respiratory ; heart rates - Pupillary dilation - Salivation - Pyrexia

question

What is the likely problem with a dog that - only wants to turn left - holding head to left - Subtle proprioceptive ataxia - whole body sway/ stagger (especially on turns) - Seemed almost "C" shaped - Spinal Reflexes: NAF

answer

NECK PAIN • C1-C5 left side white matter (ascending sensory tracts) • Final Diagnosis: Traumatic hemorrhage

question

Wobbler syndrome

answer

a condition of the cervical vertebrae that causes an unsteady (wobbly) gait and weakness (may include malformation of the vertebrae, intervertebral disc protrusion, and disease of the interspinal ligaments, ligamenta flava, and articular facets of the vertebra)

question

iatrogenic luxation

answer

A luxation due to a complication from a surgical procedure.

question

Calcinosis circumscripta

answer

tumoral condition of forming calcium deposit

question

What are your options for a further diagnostic work-up on a neurological case?

answer

• Electrodiagnostic studies - Electromyography (EMG) - Nerve conduction velocity studies (NCV) • Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collection ("spinal tap") ; analysis (cytology + protein) • Computed tomography (CT) / myelogram • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

question

Neutrophilic pleocytosis

answer

An increase in neutrophilic cell count -; Steroid Responsive Meningitis

question

Anisocoria

answer

Unequal Pupil Size

question

What are signs of horner's syndrome?

answer

• Miosis (constriction of pupil) • Enophthalmos (sunken eyes) • Ptosis (drooping of the upper eyelid caused by muscle paralysis and weakness) • Protruding nictitans (Third eyelid) (T1, T2, T3 are affected)

question

Fibrocartilaginous Embolic Myelopathy

answer

-spinal cord infarction -fibrocartigalinous embolus obstructs ventral spinal artery -acute, non-progressive, nonpainful paralysis - Asymmetrical signs

question

What are some causes for mononeuropathies?

answer

- Neoplasia - Peripheral nerve sheath tumour (PNST) • Iatrogenic, e.g. injection into sciatic nerve • Inflammatory - Infectious vs immune-mediated • Trauma - Brachial plexus avulsion - Cauda equina syndrome - Tail avulsion (cat)

question

Brachial plexus avulsion

answer

Usually happens during a severe accident. The limb is wrenched from shoulder and the the dorsal and ventral roots can actually be pulled out of the spinal cord - lose motor and sensory sensation in limb -> paralyzed thoracic limb

question

Cauda Equine differentials (6)

answer

• Cauda Equina Syndrome - Lumbosacral disease • Anomaly / congenital • Intervertebral disc disease • Discospondylitis • Neoplasia • Trauma, e.g. fracture

question

Brachial plexus neuritis

answer

inflammation of the nerves of the brachial plexus accompanied by pain and sometimes loss of function (can be immune-mediated)

question

Causes of Polyneuropathies (4 major categories)

answer

• Immune-mediated / Idiopathic - Polyradiculoneuritis: "Coonhound Paralysis" - Vaccine-induced • Metabolic - Diabetes mellitus - Paraneoplastic, e.g. insulinoma - Hypothyroidism • Toxic: Organophosphates • Primary: Breed-related

question

Polyradiculoneuritis

answer

"Coonhound Paralysis" - Allergy to raccoon saliva. Epitope in raccoon saliva similar to epitope in ventral root and stimulates immune response • Acute onset pelvic limb weakness • Progressive to generalized weakness

question

diabetic polyneuropathy

answer

most common diabetic neuropathy, sensory symptoms usually occur before motor, sensory and motor changes distally and progress bilaterally to more proximal regions

question

Give some NMJ/Muscle: Differentials (5)

answer

• Myasthenia gravis • Acute polyradiculoneuritis (coonhound p.) • Bilateral anterior cruciate ligament rupture • Immune-mediate polyarthritis • Panosteitis

question

What are possible drugs used for treatment of myasthenia gravis?

answer

•Anticholinesterase drugs (congenital & acquired) - Pyridostigmine 1-3 mg/kg PO q.8-12 hrs - Neostigmine 2mg/kg/d IM • Immune-suppressive drugs (acquired form) - Prednisone (0.5mg/kg q.48hrs) - Azathioprine

question

Diencephalon

answer

This part/lobe of the brain is responsible for Body temperature regulation, pituitary hormone control, autonomic nervous system responses. Includes: thalamus, epithalamus, Hypothalamus (optic nerve comes out of here)

question

Pons

answer

part of the brain, works with the cerebellum in coordinating voluntary movement; neural stimulation studied in activation synthesis theory may originate here

question

Midbrain

answer

the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe (CN III and IV come out of here)

question

What are the 3 main parts of the brainstem?

answer

Midbrain (sight, hearing, pain) Pons (Movement) - (CN Vm) Medulla (Breathing and heart function) - (CN VI to XII) (Also contains ARAS)

question

Vestibular system

answer

three semicircular canals that provide the sense of balance, located in the inner ear and connected to the brain by a nerve

question

What are the 4 degrees of modified mental status (neurological)?

answer

Alert Depressed Stuporous (Can be aroused with pain) Comatose

question

If a dog is disoriented, what are two potential causes?

answer

Thalamo-cortex Vestibular

question

Where do the cranial nerves originate?

answer

Diencephalon - CN II Midbrain - CN III IV Pons - CN Vm Medulla - CN VI - XII

question

Decerebrate rigidity

answer

results from damage to the upper brain stem (rostral-midbrain); all 4 limbs are hyperextended and spastic (poor prognosis)

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opisthotonos

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state of a severe hyperextension and spasticity

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Decerebellate rigidity

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Hind limbs not rigid or even flexed; mental status not affected; Cerebellar peduncles or rostral cerebellar lesion; (better prognosis)

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Corneal Reflex

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shine a light toward a dog's eye. the light should be reflected in the same spot in the two corneas.

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Otitis Media and Interna

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inflammation of the middle and inner ear structures. Can cause a facial nerve (CN VII) deficit

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How does attributes of pathological nystagmus relate to the lesion?

answer

The quick phase is away from the lesion

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What are 5 clinical signs of cerebellar problems?

answer

1. Cerebellar ataxia (Hypermetric/Wide-based) 2. Menace response deficits 3. Intention tremors (more in head than body) 4. Paradoxical vestibular signs 5. Others, e.g. decerebellate rigidity, anisocoria Note that there is *normal* mentation, postural reactions and strength

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What are the two urinary sphincters, and what types of muscle are they made of?

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Internal - smooth (SNS - contraction - hypogastric- L1 - L4) External - skeletal (somatic - contraction - pudendal nerve S1 - S3)

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Detrusor muscle

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formed by 3 layer of muscles contracts and compress urinary bladder to expel urine into urethra; (parasympathetic-contraction; sympathetic-relaxation)

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Nerves involved in detrusor muscle innervation

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Hypogastric (L1 - L4) - filling - SNS Pelvic nerve (S1 - S3) - voiding - PSNS

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