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learning

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-long-lasting change in behavior resulting from experience -results from practice, study, and experience rather than from any kind of innate or biological change

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evolutionary perspective

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-learning allows a species to adapt to their environment

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classical conditioning

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-learning in which stimuli are associated with an involuntary or reflexive response

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Ivan Pavlov

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-studies on the digestive system of dogs -considered the founder of classical conditioning -discovered dogs learned to pair the sounds in the environment where they were fed with the food that was given to them -this person found that dogs began to salivate upon hearing the sounds, before the food has arrived

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stimulus

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-anything that excites an organism to functionable activity

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response

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-any behavior of a living organism which results from stimulation

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neutral stimulus (NS)

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-a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

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unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

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-a stimulus that leads to a certain response without previous training

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unconditioned response (UCR)

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-a response that occurs naturally and automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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-any ordinarily neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response when paired with a UCS

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conditioned response (CR)

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-the learned response to a CS

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acquisition

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-the phase in which a CS comes to evoke a CR

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contiguity

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-for learning to occur, it is the best for the stimulus and response to be paired close in time and space

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delayed conditioning

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-acquisition will occur fastest if the bell is rung, and while it is still ringing, the dogs are presented the food

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forward conditioning

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same as delayed conditioning -acquisition will occur fastest if the bell is rung, and while it is still ringing, the dogs are presented with food

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trace conditioning

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-the presentation of a CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the UCS

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simultaneous conditioning

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-CS and UCS are presented at the same time

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backwards conditioning

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-UCS is presented and is followed by the CS

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generalization

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-the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to evoke similar responses

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discrimination

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-the ability to distinguish between a CS and similar stimuli that do not signal a UCS

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extinction

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-diminishing of a response when a UCS does not follow a CS

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spontaneous recovery

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-sometimes after a CR has been extinguished, the response briefly reappears upon presentation of the CS

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second order conditioning

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-once a CS elicits a CR, it is possible, briefly, to use that CS as a UCS in order to condition a response in a new stimulus

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first order conditioning

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-the bell can be paired repeatedly with the flash of light, and the dog will salivate to the light alone

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contingency model

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-made by Robert Rescorla -he emphasized cognitive elements of classical conditioning -animals can make cognitive assessments regarding the likelihood or probability of a pairing of a UCS and a CS

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aversive conditioning

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-conditioning which involves a negative response

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Hobart Mowrer

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-this man did aversive conditioning for bed wetting

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taste aversions

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-if you ingest an unusual food or drink and then become nauseous, you will probably develop an aversion to the food or drink, even if it wasn't the cause of the illness

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direct conditioning

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-Mary C. Jones worked with this -did a study on a kid named Peter. she gave peter a pleasant stimulus paired with a rabbit

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operant conditioning

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-learning based on the association of consequences with one's behavior -involves voluntary behavior

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Edward Thorndike

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-conducted a series of famous experiments using a cat in a puzzle box -this man found that the amount of time required for thr cat to get out of the box decreased over a series of trials if rewarded

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Thorndike's law of effect

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-if the consequences of a behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response connection will be strengthened and the likelihood of the behavior will increase -also called instrumental learning

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BF Skinner

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-this man coined the term operant conditioning -invented the operant chamber

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operant chamber

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-this usually has a way to deliver food to an animal and a lever or disk to peck in order to get the food

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shaping

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-gradually rewarding the organism as it approaches the desired level

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successive approximations

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-give food only when it moves loser to the lever

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reinforcers

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-anything that increases the chances of the behavior happening again

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primary reinforcers

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-satisfies an inborn biological need

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secondary reinforcers

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-items that can be used in exchange for a biological need

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positive reinforcement

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-the addition of something pleasant

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negative reinforcement

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-removal or subtraction of something unpleasant -do not confuse this with punishment. any type of reinforcement results in behavior being more likely to be repeated

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continuous

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-desired behavior is reinforced every time it occurs

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partial

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-reinforcing a response on an intermittent basis

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ratio schedule

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-the number of responses made

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interval schedule

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-passage of time

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fixed schedules

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-the pattern of reinforcement which is constant

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variable schedules

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-the pattern of reinforcement which is changing

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fixed ratio

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-provides reinforcement after a set of number of responses

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variable ratio

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-provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses

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fixed-interval

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-provides reinforcement only after an equal predetermined amount of time -like getting paid

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variable-interval

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-provides reinforcement after varying amounts of time -like a pop quiz

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overjustification effect

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-giving a reward for something the organism already likes to do -this is unfortunate because the organisms will lose intrinsic interest and rely on rewards for the behavior

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punishment

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-anything that makes a behavior less likely

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positive punishment

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-the addition of something unpleasant

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negative punishment

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-removal or subtraction of something pleasant

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escape learning

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-allows one to terminate an aversive stimulus

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avoidance learning

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-enables one to avoid the unpleasant stimulus altogether

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retributive views

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-punishment, if proportionate, is a morally acceptable response to crime -need for satisfaction ad psychological benefits of victim, intimates, and society -backward looking

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utilitarian views

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-more emphasis on rehabilitation -oriented toward future social benefits, such as reduced crime -forward looking

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Eric Kandel

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-studied aplysia (sea snails that have large, easily identifiable nerve cells -when lightly touched, aplysia withdraw their gills automatically

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habituation

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-an extremely simple form of learning -after a period of exposure to a stimulus, the animal stops responding -important in filtering large amounts of info: allows us to ignore repetitive and unimportant stimuli

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dishabituation

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-when presented with a novel stimulus, a response will result

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Donald Hebb

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-connectionist view of learning -"neurons that fire together wire together"

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cell assemblies

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-combinations of neurons often get activated at the same time for given activities or functions

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Long-Term Potentiation

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-basis of all forms of learning and memory

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John Garcia (The Garcia Effect)

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-conditioned rats to develop taste aversion to sweetened water -even if sickness isn't caused by food, but by radiation or an injection, rats came to hate the food they ate before getting sick -dislike was to a specific food -getting sick didn't make the rats dislike their food dish, or bursts of light and a noise, or the reseracher

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preparedness

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-rats seem to have an inborn tendency to associate certain stimuli with certain consequences -they seemed biologically wired to associate illness with something they ingested, and to paor sights and sound with externally produced pain

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Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen

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-conditioned a taste aversion to saccharin flavored water by pairing it with cyclophosohamide -the drug was also an immuno-suppressant -eventually, the saccharin flavored water alone led to immuno-suppression and death in some rats

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instrumental drift (operant conditioning)

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-Keller and Marian Breland believed that OC could be used to train animals to do many behaviors 1.reinforce the raccoon for picking up the coin 2. reinforce the raccoon for picking up a coin and depositing it into the bank 3.upon picking up the coin, the raccoon didn't want to put it into the container 4. reinforcing for picking up two coins at the same time and putting them into a container was not at all successful

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species-specific behavior

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-when raccoons catch crayfish, they instinctively rub the crayfish and dip them into water to remove the shell

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tool

answer

-unique human learning and cognitive capabilities -advanced _______ making and usage

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plan & impulses

answer

-unique human learning and cognitive capabilities -ability to _______ for the future and control emotional impulses

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cooperation

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-unique human learning and cognitive capabilities -advanced _______ and team-work

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teaching

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-unique human learning and cognitive capabilities -deliberate ________ of the young

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language

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-unique human learning and cognitive capabilities -advanced ________ skills

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Albert Bandura

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-Bobo Doll experiement

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process

answer

-attention to behavior -retention to remember -motor reproduction (capable of doing it) -motivation or reinforcements

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aggression

answer

-violence to solve problem -dangerous if alternatives are rarely presented or if consequences are ignored or down played

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desensitization

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-extensive exposure in media:may lead to increasing tolerance for or acceptance of violence

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fear

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-media violence may lead to mean word syndrome

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mean word syndrome

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-viewers may overestimate risk of victimization

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criticisms

answer

1. neglect of biological factors:genetics, brain, and learning differences 2. catharsis theory

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catharsis theory

answer

-media violence may decrease real-life violence: may allow people to release aggression -most studies have shown this to be false

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latent learning

answer

-learning that becomes obvious only once a reinforcement is given for demonstrating it -studied by Edward Tolman

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cognitive map

answer

-mental representation of the maze during the first half of the trials, but this knowledge only became evident once it would earn them a reward -relevance for humans: tests, competitions, may bring out someone's best performance

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insight learning

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-Wolgang Kohler is known for studying this in chimps -occurs when one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem

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feedback

answer

-should be timely and constructive

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-transfer

answer

-effects of past learning on the ability to learn new tasks -can be positive or negative

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practice

answer

-key elements: consistency, appropriate time spacing, imagery, and a master to provide guidance (Anders Ericsson)

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zone of proximal development

answer

-Studied by Lev Vygotsky -gap between what a leaner has already mastered and what he/she can achieve when provided with educational support

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scaffolding

answer

-made by Jerome Bruner -introducing new concepts by building on prior knowledge or using other supports

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affective filter

answer

-made by Stephen Krashen -impediment to learning or acquisition caused by negative emotional responses to one's environment

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self-efficacy

answer

-individual's capacity to act effectively to bring about desired results

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Martin Seligman

answer

-studied learned helplessness by shocking dogs

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learned helplessness

answer

-many dogs that couldn't escape shocks initially didn't even try to escape when they could have later

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motivation

answer

-increased _______ directs attention: allows for increases in the processing and encoding of info

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