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Malnutrition

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Nutritional imbalance caused be lack of specific dietary components Lacks the correct balance of protein, carbs, vitamins, and minerals

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Undernutrition

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Condition in which not enough calories are ingested to maintain health

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GMOS

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Contain DNA possessing genes borrowed from unrelated species. Pros: Can produce crops with pest-resistance and wider tolerance levels. Cons: Opponents fear traits could spread to wild varieties, and increased expense would largely hurt smaller farmers. 70% of all processed foods in NA contain transgenic products.

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Contour Plowing

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Follows the curves of the land. Forms ridges, and slows the water flow, thereby preserving precious top soil

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Terracing

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Shaping land to create level shelves of earth to hold water and soil. Reduces surface runoff and erosion

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Strip Farming

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Growing crops in strips which alternate with strops of summerfallow Reduces wind erosion

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Green Revolution

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New management techniques and mechanization as well as the triad of fertilization, irrigation, and improved crop varieties. This has increased food production dramatically.

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Human Nutritional Requirements

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Average person needs 2,200 kilo-calories per day

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Largest Component of Human Diet

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Wheat, Rice, Corn

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Food Security

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The condition in which people have access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs for an active and healthy life

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Iron Deficiency

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Most wide spread deficiency in the world

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Meat

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Second largest component in diet (inequitable)

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Biological Pests

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Organisms that reduce the availability, quality, or value of resources useful to humans.

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Modern era of pest control began in

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1934 with DDT

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Inorganic Pesticides

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Broad-spectrum, generally highly toxic, and essentially indestructible. (arsenic - copper

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Natural Organic Pesticides (Botanicals)

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Generally plant extracts. (nicotene - phenols)

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Fumigants

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Small molecules that gasify easily and penetrate materials rapidly. (carbon tetrachloride - ethylene dibromide)

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Chlorinated Hydrocarbons

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- Fast acting and highly toxic to sensitive organisms. (DDT - mothballs) Inhibit nerve membrane ion transport and block nerve signal transmission. Persistent - Tend to biomagnify.

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Organophosphates

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Extremely toxic to mammals, birds and fish. (Malathion) Outgrowth of nerve-gas research. Inhibit neurotransmitter enzyme.

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Carbamates

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Similar to organophosphates. (Sevin). - Extremely toxic to bees.

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Biological Controls

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Microbial agents Bacteria Parasitic Wasps

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POPS Persistent Organic Compounds

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POPs are a set of toxic chemicals that are persistent in the environment and able to last for several years before breaking down

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PESTICIDE BENEFITS

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Disease Control Many insects serve as disease vectors. Malaria, Yellow Fever Crop Protection Using pesticides, pre-harvest losses to diseases and pests are at 30%, with post-harvest losses at an additional 20-30%. In general, farmers save an average of $3-$5 for every $1 spent on pesticides.

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PESTICIDE PROBLEMS

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Non-Target Species Up to 90% of pesticides never reach intended target. Pesticide Resistance Resistant members of a population survive pesticide treatment and produce more resistant offspring. Pest Resurgence

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ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDE USE

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Behavioral Changes Crop Rotation Mechanical Cultivation Flooding Fields Habitat Diversification Growing in Pest-Free Zones Adjusting Planting Times Plant Mixed Polycultures Biological Controls Predatory / Herbivorous Insects Genetics and Bioengineering Hormones Sex Attractants

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Integrated Pest Management

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Flexible, ecologically-based strategy that uses a combination of techniques applied at specific times aimed at specific pests. Tries to minimize use of chemical controls and avoids broad spectrum controls. Employs economic thresholds to determine the point at which potential economic damage justifies pest control expenditures.

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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Department of Agriculture (USDA)

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all share federal responsibility for regulating pesticides used in food production in the US

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EPA

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regulates sale and use, and sets tolerance levels

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FDA and USDA

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enforce pesticide use and tolerance levels set by EPA

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FIRFA

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The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) provides for federal regulation of pesticide distribution, sale, and use. All pesticides distributed or sold in the United States must be registered (licensed) by EPA. Before EPA may register a pesticide under FIFRA, the applicant must show, among other things, that using the pesticide according to specifications "will not generally cause unreasonable adverse effects on the environment.''

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The Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act of 1972

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The Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act of 1972, enacted as P.L. 92-516, amended the 1947 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (P.L. 80-102, June 25, 1947, 61 Stat. 163). The 1947 statute (FIFRA) prohibited the sale or distribution of "economic poisons," provided for the registration of such materials, and authorized penalties for violation of the Act. The 1972 amendments established, under the Administrator of EPA, a program for controlling the sale, distribution, and application of pesticides through an administrative registration process. The amendments provided for classifying pesticides for "general" or "restricted" use. "Restricted" pesticides may only be applied by or under the direct supervision of a certified applicator. The amendments also authorized experimental use permits and provided for administrative review of registered pesticides and for penalties for violations of the statute. States were authorized to regulate the sale or use of any pesticide within a state, provided that such regulation does not permit any sale or use prohibited by the Act.

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Food Quality Protection Act

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The Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) was passed unanimously by Congress and then signed into law by President Clinton on August 3, 1996. The FQPA amended the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) and thus fundamentally changed EPA's regulation of pesticides. With regard to tolerances, the FQPA requires that EPA: make a safety finding when setting tolerances, i.e., that the pesticide can be used with "a reasonable certainty of no harm;" use this new safety standard to reassess, over a 10-year period, all pesticide tolerances that were in place when the FQPA was signed; consider the special susceptibility of children to pesticides by using an additional tenfold (10X) safety factor when setting and reassessing tolerances unless adequate data are available to support a different factor; consider aggregate risk from exposure to a pesticide from multiple sources (food, water, residential and other non-occupational sources) when assessing tolerances; and consider cumulative exposure to pesticides that have common mechanisms of toxicity.

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Approximately 11% of the earth's landmass is now used for

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crop production

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Forests play vital ecological roles

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Regulating climate, controlling water runoff, providing food and shelter for wildlife, and purifying air. Provide valuable materials. Wood, paper-pulp. Scenic, cultural, and historic value.

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Forest Products

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Wood plays a part in more activities of the modern economy than any other commodity. Industrial Timber and unprocessed logs account for about half of worldwide wood consumption.

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US, former Soviet Union, and Canada are largest producers of

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industrial wood and paper pulp.

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Swidden Agriculture

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also known as shifting cultivation, refers to a technique of rotational farming in which land is cleared for cultivation (normally by fire) and then left to regenerate after a few years. Can be ecologically sound and sustainable if performed carefully and in moderation.

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TEMPERATE FORESTS

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Temperate rainforests are second only to tropical rainforests in terrestrial biodiversity. Accumulate more biomass in standing vegetation per unit area than any other ecosystem on earth. Less than 10% of virgin temperate rainforest remain (80% scheduled to be cut in the near future).

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Clear-Cutting

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Every tree in a given area is cut regardless of size.

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Strip Cutting

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Harvesting all trees in a narrow corridor.

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Selective Cutting

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- A small percentage of mature trees are taken in 10-20 year rotation. Can retain many characteristics of mature, old-growth forest

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fire plays

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an important role in many forested ecosystems

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Eliminating fire has allowed

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shrubs and small trees to fill some forest floors, crowding out grasses and forbs As woody debris accumulates, chances of a major fire increase

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RANGELANDS

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Pasture and Open range occupy about 26% of the world's land surface. Types of rangelands include tallgrass and shortgrass prairies, desert grasslands and shrublands, woodlands, savannas, chaparrals, steppes, and tundras.

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Overgrazing

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About one-third of the world's rangeland is severely degraded by over-grazing. Grazing animals usually exhibit selective grazing, removing preferred species and leaving non-preferred species to survive and reproduce. Gradually, nutritional value of forage declines. Denudation of ground leads to desiccation and desertification

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Rangelands in the United States

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US has approximately 319 million ha of rangeland. Most in the West About 60% is privately owned. Only 2% of cattle and 10% of sheep graze on public land. BLM manages more land than any other agency in the US. Strong agency inclination towards resource utilization.

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State of the Range

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Natural Resource Defense Council claims only 30% of public rangelands are in fair condition, while 55% are in poor or very poor condition. Several wildlife conservation groups regard cattle grazing as the most ubiquitous form of ecosystem degradation in the southwestern US. Many call for a complete gazing ban on all public lands.

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Deforestation

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The loss or destruction of forests, mainly for logging or farming. Adds carbon dioxide to environment and can result in a rapid decrease in biodiversity in an area.

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Forestry

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The science of planting and caring for forests and the management of growing timber

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Primary Forest

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A forest in its more natural state, and undergoing only normal ecological processes

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Second Growth

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Trees that have sprouted and grown to partial maturity after old growth timber has been cut.

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Shelterwood approach

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Where smalls numbers of trees were left in place to provide shelter for seedlings as they grow. Similar to Seed tree approach.

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Wilderness Act

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1964 Act that authorized the government to protect undeveloped tracts of public land as part of the national wilderness system.

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Tropical Rainforest

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The tropical rainforests contain the greatest diversity of species of all biomes on earth. They are found around the equator,

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Temperate Deciduous Forest

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There are four distinct seasons in temperate deciduous forests and precipitation falls throughout the year The soil in these forests is very fertile

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Temperate Coniferous Forest

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Temperate coniferous forests are typically found in coastal areas with mild winters and heavy rainfall or in in-land mountainous areas with mild climates Temperate climate with temperature that fluctuates little throughout the year. High levels of precipitation (50-200 inches per year) cause a moist climate and a long growing season. Soil: Soils are generally rich with a thick layer of decaying material.

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Boreal (taiga) Forest

answer

This is the northern most forest type Boreal forests are characterized by long winters and short summers. Most precipitation is in the form of snow and these forests receive between 15 and 40 inches of precipitation per year. Soil: Because of cold temperatures, decomposition takes a long time, resulting in thin soil.

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crown fire

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When treetops burn.

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Surface fires

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burn from the top of the forest floor to about 12 feet above ground

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ground fire

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When the forest floor and all its decomposing wood, fauna, bacteria and fungi become alight, it's a disaster. It can burn for months under a snow pack and flare up again in the springtime.

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Forest management is a

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branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, economic, legal, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, protection, and forest regulation.

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Seed Tree Harvest

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In a seed tree harvest, five or more scattered trees per acre are left in the harvested area to provide seeds for a new forest stand. These trees are selected based on their growth rate, form, seeding ability, wind resistance and future marketability. - Leave few mature trees

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Coppicing

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Coppicing is an English term for a traditional method of woodland management which takes advantage of the fact that many trees make new growth from the stump or roots if cut down. In a coppiced wood, young tree stems are repeatedly cut down to near ground level. In subsequent growth years, many new shoots will emerge, and, after a number of years the coppiced tree, or stool, is ready to be harvested, and the cycle begins again.

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National Parks-

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managed for scientific, educational, and recreational use, and sometimes for their beauty or unique landforms.

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National Monuments-

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set aside to protect unique sites of special natural or cultural interests.

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National wildlife refuges

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- managed for the purpose of protecting wildlife

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National wilderness areas-

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set aside to preserve large tracts of intact ecosystems or landscapes.

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The four main concerns of urban sprawl in the U.S. are:

answer

automobiles and highway construction living costs (people can get more land and a larger house in the suburbs for the same amount of money) urban blight (city revenue shrinks as people move to the suburbs) government policies

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Public Land

answer

Managed Resource Protected Areas- managed for the sustained use of biological, mineral, and recreational resources. Habitat/Species Management Areas- actively managed to maintain biological communities. Strict Nature Reserves and Wilderness Areas- established to protect species and ecosystems. Protected Landscapes and Seascapes- nondestructive use of natural resources while allowing for tourism and recreation.

question

urban sprawl

answer

growth of low density development on the edges of cities and towns

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Irrigation -

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57% of irrigation water doesn't get to crops, most water is used for agriculture - types include. Drip-irrigation (efficiency = 90-95%) (Best) - above/below ground pipes/tubes deliver water to individual plant roots Center-pivot (eff. = 80-90%) - water pumped from underground, sprayed from mobile circling sprinklers Gravity flow (eff = 60-80%) (Worse) - water fills ditches in crop field, much is lost **this can also be called flood-irrigation

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Wetlands -

answer

important for biodiversity, Federal Wetlands Law: requires a permit to fill or deposit material in a wetland (cut wetland loss by 80%); goal is zero net loss (does allow for mitigation banking.

question

Rangelands Overgrazing

answer

- too many animals graze on grassland for too long and exceed the carrying capacity of the grassland (mostly caused by excessive feeding of livestock animals; leads to: Lower NPP (net primary productivity) of grasslands Erosion of grassland by wind/water Compaction of soil (decreases water holding capacity) Invasion of grassland by shrubs MAJOR cause of Desertification!!

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Urban Land Development

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Planned development three models: Concentric circle model - sprawl develops outwards from a central business district; example: NYC Sector model - pie-shaped wedges of commercial/industrial/housing districts Multiple-nuclei model - many independent cities very close together; example: LA, California

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Suburban sprawl-

answer

growth of low-density development on the edges of cities (encourages the dependence on cars); leads to loss of cropland/forest/wetlands, pollution of drinking water/air, greenhouse gas emissions, etc

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Transportation infrastructure

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Canals and channels- artificial waterways used for travel, shipping, or irrigation, often narrows or straightens natural streams, can increase flow of water increasing erosion and flooding, reducing habitats for wildlife Ecosystem impacts of roads - cutting down forests for roads can lead to erosion, and runoff

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Mass transit

answer

Advantages: More energy efficient than cars, produce less air pollution than most cars, require less land than roads and parking areas for cars, cause fewer injuries/year, reduce car congestion in cities Disadvantages: expensive to build/maintain, cost efficient only in densely populated areas, can cause noise

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Urbanization

answer

Advantages: populations live longer/lower infant mortality, better access to medical care/family planning/education, recycling is more feasible, helps preserve wildlife habitats (occupy 2% of earth's land) Disadvantages: not self-sustaining, consumes 75% of earth's resources, lack trees, produce little of their own food, can have water supply problems

question

Bureau of Land Management

answer

Located within the US Department of the Interior, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is responsible for managing the United States' public lands. BLM oversees the use and conservation of 258 million acres, most of which is located in the American West and Alaska. A key responsibility of BLM is the issuance of leases to corporate interests to extract oil, natural gas and minerals from beneath public lands. This natural resource development, in effect since the 19th century, has left wide areas of American wilderness damaged by the effects of drilling and mining and provoked protests from environmental groups opposed to future oil, gas and mining activities in sensitive areas.

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Wild and sceneic Rivers Act 1968

answer

The National Wild and Scenic Rivers System was created by Congress in 1968 (Public Law 90-542; 16 U.S.C. 1271 et seq.) to preserve certain rivers with outstanding natural, cultural, and recreational values in a free-flowing condition for the enjoyment of present and future generations.

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Extraction

answer

Surface and sub surface mining( +dangerous than surface)

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Open- Pit mining

answer

Surface Mining machines dig holes and remove ores

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Dredging

answer

Surface Mining chain bucket/drag lines scrape underwater mineral deposits

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Area Strip Mining

answer

strip away overburden and remove minerals (flat surfaces)

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Mountain top removal

answer

blow up a mountain lmao

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Sub surface mining

answer

removes deep deposits, disturbs less land, less waste material

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Room and Pillar

answer

Machine cut out all but a pillar to hole up mine roof

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Long Wall Mining

answer

Longwall mining is a form of underground coal mining where a long wall of coal is mined in a single slice Longwall has better resource recovery (about 80% compared with about 60% for room and pillar method,[8] fewer roof support consumables are needed, higher volume coal clearance systems, minimal manual handling and safety of the miners is enhanced by the fact that they are always under the hydraulic roof supports when they are extracting coal.[8]

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Fish- Bottom trawling

answer

Bottom trawling is trawling (towing a trawl, which is a fishing net) along the sea floor. It is also referred to as "dragging". The scientific community divides bottom trawling into benthic trawling and demersal trawling.

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Fishing- Drift Net

answer

Drift netting is a fishing technique where nets, called drift nets, hang vertically in the water column without being anchored to the bottom. The nets are kept vertical in the water by floats attached to a rope along the top of the net and weights attached to another rope along the bottom of the net.

question

Fishing- Long Line

answer

Longline fishing is a commercial fishing technique. It uses a long line, called the main line, with baited hooks attached at intervals by means of branch lines called snoods (or gangions). A snood is a short length of line, attached to the main line using a clip or swivel, with the hook at the other end.

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Fish- Purse Seine

answer

A purse seine is a large wall of netting deployed around an entire area or school of fish. The seine has floats along the top line with a lead line threaded through rings along the bottom. Once a school of fish is located, a skiff encircles the school with the

question

Aquaculture

answer

he farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish.

question

Anadromous Fish Conservation Act

answer

1965, authorizes the Secretaries of the Interior and Commerce to enter into cooperative agreements with the States and other non-Federal interests for conservation, development, and enhancement of anadromous fish, including those in the Great Lakes, and to contribute up to 50 percent as the Federal share of the cost of carrying out such agreements. Authorized are investigations, engineering and biological surveys, research, stream clearance, construction, maintenance and operations of hatcheries and devices and structures for improving movement, feeding and spawning conditions. Also authorized is construction by the Bureau of Reclamation and the Army Corps of Engineers of water resource projects needed solely for such fish. The Service is authorized to conduct studies and make recommendations to EPA concerning measures for eliminating or reducing polluting substances detrimental to fish and wildlife in interstate or navigable waters, or their tributaries.

question

Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act 1976

answer

is the primary law governing marine fisheries management in U.S. federal waters. First passed in 1976, the Magnuson-Stevens Act fosters long-term biological and economic sustainability of our nation's marine fisheries out to 200 nautical miles from shore. Key objectives of the Magnuson-Stevens Act are to: Prevent overfishing Rebuild overfished stocks Increase long-term economic and social benefits Ensure a safe and sustainable supply of seafood

question

United Nations Treaty on the Law of the Sea 1982

answer

Establishes rules for the many uses of the ocean and its resources and addresses multiple issues in the world's oceans including piracy, navigational rights, economic rights, pollution, scientific research, and preserving marine organisms. It is one of the longest treaties in history.

question

World Bank

answer

A specialized agency of the United Nations that makes loans to countries for economic development, trade promotion, and debt consolidation. Its formal name is the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

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