Topic OPTION E bio real deal – Flashcards
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E1 Stimulus and response E2 Perception of stimuli E3 Innate and learned behaviour E4 Neurotransmitters and synapses E5 (HL) The human brain E6 (HL) Further studies of behaviour |
E1 Stimulus and response |
| Define stimulus, response and reflex |
Stimulus: change in the environment (internal or external) that is detected by a receptor and elicits a response
Response: An action resulting from the perception of a stimulus. Reaction to a change perceived by the nervous system. Total of responses to stimuli often called behaviour
Reflex: A rapid, unconscious response |
| _______ receive information from the (_____ or _____) environment, in the form of _____, e.g. light sound or glucose/blood concentration. This information is changed to ______ _______ and transmitted to the brain where the information is recieved and "decoded", eg action potentials from the eyes are percieved as light. Examples of receptors are? |
Receptors, (internal, external), energy. action potentials
photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors |
| _______ neurons recieve action potentials from _______, and ______ them towards the _____ _____ _____. There they connect to _____ neurons. |
| Sensory, receptors, conduct, Central Nervous System. Relay. |
| _______ neurons receive action potentials from _______ neurons and pass them to other parts of the ____, or ______ neurons in the case of a ____ ___. |
| Relay, sensory, CNS, motor, reflex arc. |
| _____ neurons take action potentials from the ___ to the ______ or _____. The result of an action potential conducted by a _____ neuron is the contraction of a _____ or the release of a product of a ______. |
| Motor, CNS, muscles, glands. motor, muscle, gland. |
| A _______ is a connection between two neurons. In ______ _______, the ______ impulse is changed into a ______ signal which crosses the ______ and changes back into one or more action potentials in the next neuron. |
| synapse. chemical synapses, electrical, chemical, synapse. |
| The _______ is the muscle or gland that produces the _______ to a ______. |
| Effector, response, stimulus |
| Diagram of a reflex arc |
| [image] |
| Animals can only be affected by _____ ______, when the responses are caused by ______ _____. |
| natural selection, genetic factors. |
The bird latin:______ ______ (_______) breeds during summer in Germany, and until recently flew to Spain or the Mediterranean for winter. However, recently ____ of blackcaps migrate to the UK instead.
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| Sylvia atricapilla (blackcap), 10% |
To test whether this change is _______ determined or not (and was therefore a consequence of _____ ______ or not), eggs were collected from birds who flew to both the UK and Spain. The direction the hachlings flew for winter was recorded. Birds whose parents migrated to UK tended to fly west, and birds whose parents went to Spain flied south-west.
This suggests blackcaps are genetically programmed to respond to ______ when they migrate, so they fly in a particular direction.
The increasing number of blackcaps flying to the UK might be due to warmer winters and greater survival rates there. |
| genetically, natural selection, stimuli |
When winters were colder, there was a lot of ______ _____ against the genes that caused birds to fly west. This means they were more likely to die in the winter.
Now that the winters are warmer, the survival rates in the UK have increased, reducing natural selection against them and hence against the behaviour. |
| natural selection. |
Hedgehogs roll into a ball when threatened. When at night hedgehogs cross roads, they treat approaching cars as predators, so they roll up and die.
However, it has been suggested that some hedgehogs run away from cars. This is more likely for them to survive, and produce more offspring carrying on this gene. |
E2
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| Perception of stimulli |
| Chemoreceptors have special ______ in their _______. These ______ can bind to a particular substance, causing a _______ of the _______ leading to an _____ ______ being sent to the brain. Chemoreceptors are responsible for our sense of _____ or ______ but also detect ____ __. They are found on the tongue. |
| proteins, membranes. proteins, depolarisation, membrane, action potential. Taste, smell, blood pH. |
| Electroreceptors are found for example in _______. _______ ________ create _______ _______ which are conducted by the water. _____ can sense these fields with their _________ and detect prey. As the air is a poor conductor, terrestrial organisms do not have much use for such an organ. |
| sharks. muscle contractions, electrical fields. Sharks, electroreceptors. |
| Mechanoreceptors are those that are sensitive to some kind of ________. In fish, they detect vibrations in the environment. Humans have them in our _____ _____, to inform us of our body's _____ and ________. Three fluid-filled _______ _______ are connected to the area. In the canals, there is a system of ____ cells, and a change in speed or direction will move the fluid in the _______ ______, bending the _____. This causes an _____ ________ to be sent to the brain. |
| movement. inner ear, position, movement. semicircular canals. Hair, semicircular canals, hairs. Action potentials. |
| Photoreceptors are the ____ and ____ in our eyes. They contain _______ that are broken down when exposed to ______. This causees cells to send an ______ ______ to the brain. |
| rods, cones. Photopigments. Action potential |
| Thermoreceptors are found, for example, under the _____. _____ receptors, just under the surface of the skin, will send an ______ _____ when the temperature drops. _____ receptors, located a little deeper, also send one if the temerature increases. The temperature centre in the ________ of the brain also contains ________ to monitor the temperature of the ______. |
| skin. Cold, action potential. Warm. Hypothalamus, thermoreceptors, blood. |
| The human eye |
| [image] |
| Rods and cones |
| [image] |
| Light enters from above (the picture before was turned) and passes between various neurons. Then, it hits the ____ or ____. Light that does not hit these, hits a layer of _______ ________ to prevent it from _______ back into the eye and producing another set of images. |
| Rods, cones. Pigmented epithelium, reflecting |
| Light entering the eye is refracted by the _____ and the _____. It passes through the ______ ______ _______ and then reaches the _______. The light muss pass between nerve cells (ganglion cells and bipolar neurons) to reach the ____ and _____ which form the layer of light-sensitive cells. |
| Cornea, lens. Clear vitreous humour, retina. rods, cones. |
| Rods and cones contain _____ _______ which are broken down under the influence of _____. This causes one or more impulses to be sent to the ______. In the absence of ____, the pigments are rapidly _________. |
| photosensitive pigments, light. brain. light, reformed |
Rod cells are found all through the ______, except in the ______. The pigment in the rods is called _______ or visual ______. Several rods are linked to one ______ ______. This means that their impulses are "_____ up" and this explains their higher light sensitivity. However, it also reduces ______. When light has caused an ______ _______ in rods or cones, it is passed on to the _____ _______. Here, the presence of action potentials of other cells may inhibit or further excite the _____ cell. An action potential may then be passed on to the ______ cell and from here to the ______ ______. |
Retina, fovea. rhodopsin, purple. Bipolar neuron. added. Accuracy.
Action potential, bipolar neurons. Bipolar. Ganglion, optic nerve. |
| The cones are mostly found in the _____. Cones contain ______ different pigments which are sensitive to different colours of light. Cones are ______ linked to the bipolar neurons and are therefore _____ sensitive to lower light intensities, and give a _____ accurate picture in bright light. |
| Fovea. three. individually, less, more |
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Processing visual stimuli already starts in the eye. It has been found that _____ cells send impulses to the brain, even when light is completely ______. Diffuse, low intensity light does not affect this process.
However, when a small spot of light shines on the retina, _______ may greatly ______ the number of impulses sent to the brain or may _____ sending impulses, depending on where the light shines. |
Ganglion, absent.
ganglions, increase, stop |
Rods are grouped together in _____ _____. Those in the ______ of a ______ area are _______ and will respond to light by sending an impulse to the ______. Those near the ______ of the ______area are ________ and will stop the ______ from sending impulses to the brain.
If light shines on ________ _________, in the ______ of a receptive area, the ganglions send more _______. If the light shines on the _______ ________, the ganglion will _____ sending impulses. If the light shines on ________, there will be ___ ______ in the frequency of sending impulses, i.e. it remains the same as in the dark. |
receptive areas. centre, receptive, excitatory, ganglion. Outside, receptive, inhibitory, ganglion.
Excitatory photoreceptors, centre, impulses. Inhibitory photoreceptors, stop. Both, no change. |
The explanation for this is that the nerves are not just passing information about the light ______ perceived to the brain. They are processing details about light and dark and informing the brain about _____ which tells us a lot about shapes.
TVs and cameras use this concept and can do the same thing. It is called ______ _______. It makes the edge of something ____ even ______ and creates a "halo" of light around it, enhancing the ______. This also happens within the _____ (and is also known as lateral inhibition), and can be demonstrated by looking at the _______ _____ ______. |
intensity, contrasts.
Edge enhancement. Dark, darker, contrast. retina. Hermann grid illusion. |
| In the Hermann grid illusion, there seem to be grey spots in the middle of the white intersections, however they fade out when looking at them. This is explained by the _____ _____ of the retina. |
Receptive areas. [image] |
| When glancing at a intersection, the _______ photoreceptors are stimulated. But, as there are four white lines around it, several ________ photoreceptors also recieve light. In a white line part, fewer _______ receptors will be stimulated. As a result, the brain will think there is less contrast at the ______ than at the ______. The intersection will look like a grey dot, the line will look white. This is only if we dont look directly at them, though. When focussing on the spot, we use photoreceptors in the fovea where the ______ areas are much smaller. They grey spot disappears. |
| excitatory. Inhibitory. Inhibitory. Intersection, line. Receptive. |
| Contra-lateral processing |
| [image] |
_____-______ ________ refers to the fact that some of the nerve fibres in the optic nerve will cross before reaching the brain. The information of the left half of the _____ _____ arrives on the ____ side of the retina in the _____ eye. The nerves from this section are processed from the _____ side of the brain.
Information from the ____ half of the visual field arrives on the ____ side of the retina in the ____ eye. The nerves from this section are processed by the _____ side of the brain. Vice versa occurs for the right eye. |
Contra-lateral. Visual field, right, left. Right.
Right, left, left. Right. |
Overall, information of the right side of the visual field is processed by the ____ side of the brain, and information from the ____ side of the visual field is processed by the _____ hemisphere.
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left, left, right.
It does NOT mean info from right eye is processed by left hemisphere and vice versa. |
| The human ear. |
| [image] |
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| E3: Innate and learned behaviour |
| Distinguish between innate and learned behaviour? |
Innate behaviour develops independently of environmental context.
Learned behaviour develops as a result of experience. |
| Innate behaviour develops independently of environmental context. It is usually behaviour of all members of the species, including the young. It is controlled by the ______, making it subject to ______ _______. Two examples are ____ and _____. |
| genes, natural selection. taxes, kineses. |
| Learned behaviour develops as a result of experience. When a experience is beneficial, the animal may _____ the behaviour as it has learned it may bring a positive ______. |
| repeat, consequence. |
| What is taxis? What is kineses? |
Taxis is a change in movement in response to a stimulus Kinesis is a change in activity rate in response to a stimulus |
Example experiment for taxis, in this case phototaxis: Euglena is a photosynthetic unicellular organism that requires light as a source of energy
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| How this looks |
| [image] |
Experminent for kinesis (kinesis to humidity): Woodlice have ______ for respiration that will tend to dry out in dry conditions
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gills.
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| In the Euglena experiment, the species travels towards light. This increases the amount of photosynthesis, by which photoautotrophs produce glucose. To reproduce, the Euglena need to produce sufficient organic molecules. |
| In the kinesis to humidity experiment on woodlice, the moodlice move faster in dry conditions, as it increases their chance of leaving potentially dangerous dry conditions, as woodlice are prone to dehydration because of breating through gills. In damp conditions, they move less, which is more likely to cause them to remain in damp conditions which enhances their chances of survival and reproduction. |
______ behaviour is suited to conditions that do not change, e.g. in bees. They know innately to search for nectar in brightly coloured flowers. A positive experience with a flower will cause the bee to _____ look for this flower next time.
Animals can also learn how to catch their food by practice, for example grizzly bears practicing catching salmon.
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| Innate, actively. |
| Ivan _____ investigated the salivation reflex in dogs. Dogs secrete saliva when they smell or taste food. Ivan decided to ring a bell before feeding the dog, and eventually the dog produced saliva at the sound of the bell. The bell became the _______ stimulus, as the dog had been conditioned to associate it with food. Rhe Tood was the _______ stimulus (easier to explain with picture). |
Pavlov. Conditioned. Unconditioned. [image] |
All birds have a genetic component to their birdsong. For the _____ bird, it is completely innate. They can sing their song when raised in complete isolation.
Many songbirds, e.g. the ______, have an innate component to their song and expand it by learning from other warblers. They sing a simplified song if not taught by older birds.
Others, like the ______, incorporate sounds it hears into their song, eg sound of mobile phones. |
Phoebe. Warbler. Starling. |
| E4: Neurotransmitters and synapses |
| Resting potential across membrane of nerve fibres is _____. Active potential is _____. To transfer an imulse across two neurons, a reaction occurs in the _____-______ ________. This happens through opening ______ (___) channels, letting ______ in and letting membrane potential go closer to zero. This is called an _______ _____-_______ ________ (____) which will _______ the post-synaptic membrane. If enough signals come through, a _____ ______ occurs. |
-70mV. +50mV. post-synaptic membrane. Sodium (Na+), sodium. excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP), depolarise. action potential. |
| It is possible for reactions of the ____-_______ membrane to open ______ (___) channels, so that _____ ions diffuse into the neuron. This brings membrane potential further AWAY from zero, making it harder to create a action potential. This is called ______ ____-______ ______ (_____), and will _________ the post-synaptic membrane. If a number of signals come through ______ synapses, then one or more from ______ synapses will still not be enough to cross ______ _______ and will not generate an action potential. The impulse will not be transmitted. |
| post-synaptic, chloride (Cl-), chloride. Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP), hyperpolarize. Inhibitory, excitatory, threshold potential. |
| Decision making can be based on the ______ of ___ and ____ signals. If the EPSP are capable of _______ the post-synaptic membrane beyon the treshold, despite the ________ effect of the IPSP, the post-synaptic membrane will send an action potential. If the IPSPs hyperpolarise the membrane enough so that EPSPs cannot cause sufficient ________, the signal will fade out. |
| summation, EPSP, IPSP. depolarising, hyperpolarising. Depolarisation |
| Psychoactive drugs influence the brain by affecting neurotransmitters. They can increase or decrease _____-________ _______. |
Post synaptic transmission. They can do things like release neurotransmitters, mimic their effect, reduce or delay re-uptake of neurotransmitters, block the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane or bind to the neurotransmitter receptors, but with the opposite effect |
| 3 examples of excitatory drugs? |
| nicotine, cocaine, amphetamines |
| 3 examples of inhibitory drugs? |
| benzodiazepines, alcohol, tetrahydrocannibol (THC) |
| How THC works: THC is a psychoactive drug found in the _______ plant. It causes _______ and is a pain killer by binding to _______ receptors, and increases ______. It is said to be both addictive and non-addictive by people. It impairs ______ and ____-______, and makes students get statistically lower grades. |
| Cannabis. relaxation, endorphin, appetite. memory, decision-making |
How cocaine works: Cocaine stimultes the ____ and creates a sense of ______. It blocks re-uptake of ______, which therefore _______. It makes the user feel less ____ or _____, and enhances endurance. _______ is part of the brains reward system, makes us feel happy, and anything increasing its effect will be potentially addictive. |
| CNS, euphoria. Dopamine, accumulates. Tired, hungry. Dopamine. |
| The "high" of crack cocaine is usually followed by a "crash." Users feel ______, irritability and paranoia. This leads to further cocaine use. However, the brain reduces number of _____ _____ when overloaded with cocaine, so when drug wears off, people experience less joy out of everyday experience. This leads to further consumption. They have problems with family, friends, work, lying and cheating if they need to obtain more cocaine. |
| depressed. Dopamine receptors |
| Define addiction |
| The repeated and compulsive use of psychoactive drugs. |
| Some say that _____ factors increase the chance of a person becoming addicted - others say this is not true. The data has been inconclusive. We know there are commonly more than 1 addicted person in a family, yet this can just as easily be due to social factors. However, Native Americans are much more likely to die of alcoholism than other Americans, so this may support the idea. |
| genetic |
| People from an environment with substance abuse, or who suffered childhood trauma and/or neglect are more at risk of becoming addicted. |
| Anything that increases dopamine effects is potentially addictive, which counts for many drugs. The brain reduces number of dopamine receptors when overloaded with a drug, so when it wears off, people experience less joy from daily life, reinforcing drug use. |
| E5: the human brain |
| Label these on the brain |
| [image] |
| The medulla oblongata controls ______ and _______ activities, such as _______, _______ and _______; _______ and _______ _______. |
| automatic, homeostatic, swallowing, digestion, vomiting; breating and heart activity |
| The cerebellum coordinates _______ functions, such as ______ and _______ |
| coordinates, movement, balance |
| The hypothalamus maintains ______, coordinating the _____ and ______ systems, secreting _______ from the posterior ______ (and releasing factors regulating the anterior pituitary) |
| homeostasis, nervous, endocrine, hormones, pituitary |
| The ______ lobe of the pituitary gland stores and releases _______ produced by the ________ and the _____ lobe. It also produces and secretes hormones regulating many body functions. |
| posterior, hormones, hypothalamus, anterior. |
| The cerebral hemispheres are the integrating centre for high complex functions like ______, ______ and _______. |
| learning, memory, emotions |
| The brain can be quite adaptive to change. In an animal, a optic nerve was connected to auditory area, and it was able to process visual information anyway. ______ issues are an obvious problem with animal testing. Some claim experiments on animal brains, intending to extrapolate results to human brains, are not valid as the human brain is too different from any animal's. Others say this is bullshit, and that primate brain research has provided important information. |
| Ethical |
| When humans suffer brain damage and develop ______, it is possible to create these _____ in animal brains, and compare the effects with both intact animal brains and humbans who have lesions in the same areas. |
| lesions, lesions |
| In 2003, functional ____ ______ was developed, and this was applied to brains by comparing images of aphasic patients to normal brains. Damage could be correlated to the ________ found. |
| brain imaging. Impairments |
| If part of the brain is active, it requires more ______. Oxygen is carried in red blood cells attached to _______. _______ with oxygen is referred to as ________ and when oxygen is removed as _________. |
| oxygen. haemoglobin. Haemoglobin, oxyhaemoglobin, de-oxyhaemoglobin. |
| Oxyhaemoglobin will respond differently to a _____ ____ than de-oxyhaemoglobin. These differences can be measured using _______ ________ _______ (___). The bigger the difference in oxygenation levels of the blood, the more oxygen has been used, and the more _____ the part of the brain is. These differences can be expressed as different colours. |
| magnetic field. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) |
| By comparing undamaged brains to brains of people who suffered lesions (any kind of brain damage), the extent can be measured using MRI (fMRI?) imaging |
| The _______ ______ _______ is part of the nervous system not usually under _______ control. It is divided into the ______ and the _______ part. |
| Autonomic nervous system, voluntary. sympathetic, parasympathetic. |
| The sympathetic nervous system is involved in action, for example _____ or _____ away. Impulses via the sympathetic nervous system will increase _____ ______, contract the ______ muscles in the ____, ______ the pupil to improve vision, and decrease flow of blood to the ____, so that it can flow to other tissues, e.g. the _____, which require more glucose and oxygen. Digestion is low priority for emergencies. |
| fighting, running. heart rate, dilatory, iris, dilating, gut, muscles. |
| The parasympathetic nervous system is involved in processes during rest. Its messages reduce _____ _____, cause ______ muscles of the ____ to contract, _______ the size of the pupil, ______ amount of light on the retina, limiting the amount of damage from too much light, and increasing blood flow to the ____ to facilitate digestion. |
| heart rate, circular, iris, constricting, reducing, gut. |
| The _____ _____ is a type of cranial reflex. When bright light is perceived by the ganglion cells in the retina, an _____ is created which passes to the ______ and from there to the nerve going to the eye. As a result, the _______ muscles in the iris immideately ______, reducing the amount of light on the retina, so it isnt damaged. ______ the iris is not such a fast response, since it is a less urgent need to allow more light into the eye. |
| pupil reflex. impulse, midbrain. circular, contract. Dilating |
| The two sets of muscles of the _____ are the _____ and the ______ muscles. |
| iris, circular, radial |
When the circular muscles ______, and the _____ muscles _______, the pupil becomes _______.
When the circular muscles _______, and the ______ muscles _______, the pupil becomes _______. |
contracts, radial, relax, smaller.
relaxes, radial, contract, larger. [image] |
| Define brain death |
| The permanent absence of measurable brain activity. |
Due to modern life support equiptment, we can maintain the bodily process of someone who doesnt respond to any signal for a long time. If there is no measurable brain activity, it is persumed that there is no form of _______, and the doctors are allowed to declare the patient dead and switch off life support equiptment.
The absence of a ______ _____, pain and gag-reflex, are indicators that cranial reflexes are absent. Many such tesets have to be done before declaring someone brain dead.
Brain death is not to be confused with vegetative state or coma. |
| conciousness. pupillary reflex. |
| Pain is important, as it informs us that there is a problem, and lets us take action to reduce further damage. Pain ______ are nerve endings in skin and organs. They respond to ______ released by blood vessels, macrophages and cells, when they are damaged. |
| receptors. chemicals. |
| When pain receptors detect pain, an ______ is sent via the spinal cord to the _____ _____, where pain is experienced. The perception of pain is related to ______ factors and the _____ of the trauma causing pain. When pain is experienced, it is desibrable to reduce it, improving our chances of survival. The brain will produce _______, which are natural pain killers. |
| impulse, cerebral cortex. emotional, severity. endorphins. |
Endorphins are released by the ______ ______, during stress, _____ or excercise. They act as painkillesrs by blocking the release of _________ at the _______ involved in pain signal ________. |
| pituitary gland, injury. neurotransmitters, synapses, transmission. |
| E6: Further studies of behaviour |
| Most honey bees live in groups exceeding ______ individuals. Most bees are ____, there are a few ____ and one ______. The queen lays ____ ____ ____ that hatch into _____. These develop into workers, except if fed with a special _____ (more protein), which makes them develop into queens. After about a _____, the _____ become _____, and two ____ later they emerge as adult bees. |
| 20'000. workers, drones, queen. Fertilised diploid eggs, larvae. diet. week, larva, pupa, weeks. |
| The tasks of the workers depend on their age. Young workers start off as ______, taking care of _____ for about ___ weeks. Later, they are assined to _____, _______ or ________ sick or dead bees. Gradually, they start going outside, and for about ____ weeks they go out collecting _____ and ______. |
| nurses, larvae, two. guarding, cleaning, removing. six, honey, pollen. |
| When the colony grows too big, the old queen prepares to leave. Some ______ will be fed the special diet to become queens. Some unfertilised eggs hatch into ____ (males). The old queen leaves with half the colony. The new queen hatches, flies out and is followed by the _____, by which she will be ________. She returns, starts _____ ____, fertilising them with the stored _____. She will not fly any more, and is looked after by the ______. The _____ also come back, yet have no further role and when food becomes scarce are driven out or killed. |
| larvae. drones. Drones, fertilised. laying eggs, sperm. workers. drones. |
The _____ ____ ____ have a social structure unusual for mammals. They live in _____ underground, in burrows and tunnels. The _____ is the only female that reproduces, with a few males. Other females are _____ with a specific task: ______, ______ or ____-_______.
The queen nurses the _______ for a little, but this is soon taken over by the _____, until they are capable of playing a role in the colony. Should the queen die, other female workers fight until it is clear who is the new queen. The _____ of the workers is not _____, but maintained by the queen, possibly by _______. |
naked mole rat. colonies. queen. workers, tunnelers, defenders, food-gatherers.
young, workers. sterility, genetic, pheronomes. |
| For ______ organisms, natural selection may act at the level of the _______, rather than at the level of the individual _______ of the colony. For example, a worker bee could _____ the queen while _______ itself, yet the behaviour is still likely to spread as it increases the chance of the queen surviving and spreading the genes that caused the worker's behaviour in the first place. |
| social, colony, member. feed, starve. |
| Define altruism |
| Behaviour which benefits another individual at the cost of the performer. |
| What is Hamilton's rule? |
If the benefit to the recipient multiplied by the degree of relatedness to the performer is greater than cost to the performer, the behaviour is likely to spread by natural selection.
This means: animals are more likely to perform altruistic acts that benefit closely related members of the species |
| _____-______ lizards have three different throat colours. In general, ______ (agressive) throated will defeat _____ throated lizards, who will defeat ______ throated lizards. |
| Side-blotched. orange, blue, yellow. |
| When there are a lot of agressive, orange throated males, the blue throated lizards form _______ to defend their territory, and some individuals will end up defending the territory and won't have much time for reproducing, while others are able to reproduce. This is ______ behaviour for the ones defending the territory. The behaviour is also _______ for all. |
| partnerships. altruistic. mutualistic. |
| ______ ____ are nocturnal mammals, and live on blood they obtain from other mammals or birds. They need to feed every few days, but if they have not been able to do this they will be given blood from another member of the group. This will be a "cost" for the one providing the food, yet the ones who do give food to other members in need have a higher chance of survival than those who do not participate. |
| Vampire bats. |
| _____ cannot ______ in the same area all the time, as this would _____ the numbers of _____ too much, which would not also not benefit the ______. |
| Predators, forage, deplete, prey, predator. |
| _____-_____ _________ are birds, and it has been found that they ______ the area to go elsewhere if they have searched for food for a certain amount of time without being successful. This means birds do not spend too much time searching for food, and minimises time spent travelling to a new area. |
| Black-capped chickadees, leave |
| The foraging behaviour of _____ _____, foraging on ______ (waterfleas) has been investigated. They search for the largest prey if prey is abundant, as ____ _____ _____ will outweigh the _____ ____ of looking specifically for large prey. If food is scarce, they will eat any size of prey, as the ______ ______ _____ of searching only for large prey is outweighed by the now larger ______ ____ of looking specifically for large prey. |
| Bluegill fish, Daphnia. Higher energy payoff, search cost. Higher energy payoff, search cost. |
| There are two types of Daphnia presented to the fish during a investigation: _________, which has a large _____ and long ____ _____, and is therefore hard to eat, meaning the fish can eat less in the same amount of time - and _________, which is easy to eat. |
| D. lumholtzi, helmet, tail spine. D. pulex. |
This is an example of _____ behaviour that ______ food intake. |
Foraging, optimizes |
| There are three main aspects to mate selection? |
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| Many animals often show _____ _____ in their activities, often in _____ or _____ rythms. For example, the _______ slows down ________ at night to use less energy. |
| rythmical variations, daily, yearly. hummingbirds, metabolism |
| Many ____ in different parts of the worlds engage in _____ ______ where males and females release ____ at the exact same time, which can be measured to a degree of 5 minutes, in the year. This means the gametes are much more likely to meet. It is probably triggered by a combination of _____, _____, and _____ signals between the individuals. |
| corals, mass spawning, gametes. temperature, (moon)light, chemical |
| Many deer have their ___ (fertile period) in november (northern hemisph.) and give birth in spring (not too cold, much food). Roe deer have a _____ _____ of the embryo, and their rut takes place in ____/______ when females are very well fed and more fertile, and the embryo will "float" in the uterus until _______. At this time, the embryo grows very slowly, and the mother will not have her energies drained, and will be able to increase her reserves for the winter. In december, the embryo _____ and grows until spring, but the mother will have enough reserves for a hard winter for both. |
| rut. Delayed implantation, July/August, December. implants |
