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core mechanism: analogy

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similarity between different examples; the goal is to find the common principle or rule underneath the surface-level differences

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surface features

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parts of an analogy that can be easily inferred

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deep structure

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the relationship between the parts of an analogy

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prior knowledge

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ideas that are familiar and already part of your mind model

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negative transfer error

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use something memorized but in the wrong context

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positive transfer

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apply learned rule in a new context

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core mechanism: belonging

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the perception of being accepted, valued, and included; the goal is for students to put in more effort when they feel like they fit in

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self-indentification

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an "I am" label in a group (acceptance from the self)

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others' attributions

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a "you are" label in a group (acceptance from others)

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stereotype threat

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based on what others say about whether you are a member of one group and excluded from another group

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setback

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short-term failure

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core mechanism: contrasting cases

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juxtaposition of close examples; the goal is to learn what a thing is by what it is not

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sensation

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picking up energy from the environment and signaling the brain

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perception

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meaningful interpretation of signals from senses

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Meno's paradox

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where to begin looking for answer if you don't know what it is you are looking for

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core mechanism: deliberate practice

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develop beyond current abilities through focused effort on improving specific skills and concepts; the goal is to to rise above performance plateau by automating old processes

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performance plateau

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repeating the same action over and over again, not developing ability

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chunking

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relating information to each other by grouping them so that you can remember more bits of information at the same time

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working memory

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a system that is responsible for storing and controlling information temporarily (it can store up to seven pieces of information at a time)

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proceduralization

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verbalizing each guiding step to explicitly retrieve information into working memory in order to complete task

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automatization

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the chunk of smaller steps so that the entire task can now be done without further thought or verbalization

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knowledge reorganization

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when meeting new problems, existing categories are ordered to accommodate new information

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the power law

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also known as 80/20 rule over a small amount of time at the beginning, without deliberate practice, a person can learn about 80% of content and plateau

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core mechanism: elaboration

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make connections between new pieces of information and prior knowledge; the goal is to improve memory with recall, not just by familiarity

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declarative information

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the things that people can talk about: statements, facts, claims, opinions

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long term memory

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a system of indefinite storage in which pieces of information can be encoded and later retrieved

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cognitive overload

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undesirable effect when working memory is being asked to work with too many ideas

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core mechanism: feedback

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learners are informed about the quality of their ideas and behaviors; the goal is to make adjustments based on constructive criticism

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informative feedback

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advice/reasons why the current outcome doesn't match the desired goal

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reinforcement feedback

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reward structure to change behaviors

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negative feedback

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the specific change one needs to make to meet the goal

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positive feedback

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no change is necessary; one continues the same behavior

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STUN-R feedback

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specific, timely, understandable, nonthreatening, revisable

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goals

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standards of performance

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core mechanism: generation

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a memorization technique to improve recall by recalling over and over again; the goal is to slow memory decay of what you have already learned

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expanded practice approach

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a procedure to recall all prior information and new piece of information each time that you recall

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free recall

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remembering without needing hints or cues from outside sources

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core mechanism: hands-on

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the incorporation of kinetic and other senses in the learning process; the goal is to make sense of symbols and abstract information

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embodied cognition

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the theory that our bodies can help us experience an abstract thought in a physical way

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core mechanism: imaginative play

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the use of fantasy and metaphors to create a story with a different world; the goal is to improve executive functioning so that being proactive rather than reactive becomes a habit

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executive function

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cognitive processes for thinking to control behavior

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symbolic skill

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a specific executive function of representation, that one thing can stand for something else

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development

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natural changes in maturity

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learning

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adjustment of thinking to specific contexts that vary for individuals and individual cultures

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performance

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the completion of specific tasks and how well the task is done

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problem solving

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a subset of performance in which the task is to figure out the solutions to a challenge

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core mechanism: just-in-time telling

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the experience of problems before being given the solutions and explanations; the goal is to understand the context and the solutions' importance

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regency

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things that someone just heard can be easily retrieved

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primacy

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things that someone heard first in a list of things can be easily retrieved

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the if/then in just-in-time telling

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the if is the problem or situation; the then is the expert verbal explanations

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transmission theory

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the somewhat faulty idea that you can just pour ideas into someone's minds for them to learn

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constructivism

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the theory that students learning by making connections themselves

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inert knowledge

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a quantity of theoretical knowledge that cannot be applied to real situations

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double-flipped instruction

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one application of just-in-time telling: posing a problem to students and then students watch video lectures explaining the solution

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the goals of education

answer

a combination of innovation and efficiency so that students first engage in exploration and inquiry before deliberate practice to automate procedures

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efficient knowledge

answer

pragmatic and practical knowledge that is characterized by quick retrieval of information, accurate application of solutions, and high consistency in performance

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innovative knowledge

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expertise that is adaptive and flexible because it embodies variation and the willingness to learn new ways of doing things

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insight

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understanding by not being stuck on the first reactions and assumptions made

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core mechanism: listening and sharing

answer

collaborative learning so that people learn the information better; the goal is to learn how to cooperate as a solution to problems

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the five elements of collaboration/cooperation

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joint attention, listening, sharing, coordinating (taking turns), and perspective-taking

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interdependence and accountability

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the idea that everyone in the collaborative group need each other to solve the problem and that each person has a responsibility to the group to participate and carry out actions

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core mechanism: making

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the creation of products that can be shared with others; the goal is to combine ideas and practical knowledge to produce

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productive agency

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the motivation someone gets from seeing their ideas becoming a concrete object in the world

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appropriation

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the body of knowledge that makes up who we are is from consuming others' ideas and objects

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production

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the contribution to society by building ideas and products and putting it into the social matrix

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situational interest

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temporary enthusiasm based on someone's circumstances in that particular moment

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individual interest

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sustainable enthusiasm that is extended by context, resources, expert advice, and a sharing community

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islands of expertise

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the network of facts and practical skills to one's knowledge

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productive agency cycle

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a natural order in which building contributes to society gets feedback that influences improved creations

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core mechanism: norms

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the informal rules of social interaction and how one should conduct themselves in society; the goal is to coordinate effective exchange of information and ideas

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values

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beliefs about the traits that are important in society

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laws

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critical rules or norms that become part of system enforced by the government

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consistency

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reinforcement that is explicitly done the same way each time

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norm expectations

answer

the following of rules by the group and by the individual depends on trust that each will abide by rules

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IRE

answer

initiate-response-evaluation that is teacher-driven inquiry (there's a right answer that the teacher is looking for)

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productive disciplinary engagement

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rules that are specific to a field and how domain experts authentically behave within the field

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core mechanism: observation

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learning by watching other people's attitudes and behaviors; the goal is to imitate complex procedures or appropriate cultural reactions

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mirroring/mirror neurons

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a type of brain cell that turns on when someone does something or see another person doing the same thing (as though mentally experiencing the same performance/behavior)

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behaviorism

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the debatable theory that people can learn only through reinforcement

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vicarious reward

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an outcome of observing others receiving a positive reward

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affective states

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feelings or behaviors from imitating how models or people around you react to a situation (social referencing)

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core mechanism: participation

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engagement in cultural activity that already exists; the goal is to jump start in a new activity or skill

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zone of proximal development (ZPD)

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the mental space in which an activity is too difficult to do on your own but it is achievable with some help

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apprenticeship

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guided participation

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scaffolding

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support that is faded once someone can do something on their own

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testing for potential

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the opportunity to learn is part of the summative assessment

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remixing

answer

copying a completed work but modifying a part of it as a way of scaffolding

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crutch

answer

scaffold does not fade so learner does not eventually complete task independently

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core mechanism: question-driven learning

answer

inquiry-based learning in which a problem is posed; the goal is to instill intellectual curiosity and intrinsic motivation

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goal decomposition

answer

a composite objective is split into steps

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anchored instruction

answer

centering lesson on a narrative that develops a complex problem

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Socratic dialog

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guiding student reasoning through question-asking and answering that stimulates critical thinking

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project-based learning

answer

the emphasis of production usually through collaboration and by solving a problem

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core mechanism: reward

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learner receives appropriate returns to behavior; the goal is to get a learner to adopt a new behavior even if they're not sure why

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Thorndike's law of effect

answer

reward trumps rationality and relevancy

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extrinsic reward

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the desirable outcome that comes after performing an action that isn't important to the desire of doing the action itself

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intrinsic reward

answer

the desirable outcome that comes with performing an action; self-reinforcement

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variable reinforcement

answer

occasional rewards reinforcing behavior so that learner doesn't stop doing the behavior when there isn't a reward

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autonomy

answer

the feeling of control over your own actions and decisions

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competence

answer

the feeling that achievement is attainable because of your ability and that you can improve and gain skill mastery

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social relatedness

answer

a psychological need and desire to connect with others

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optimal challenge

answer

flow from intrinsic motivation where the activity is not inducing anxiety or boredom in a way that makes someone lose sense of time

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primary reinforcers

answer

rewards pertaining to basic unconditioned needs such as food, drink, and affection

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secondary reinforcers

answer

rewards pertaining to conditioned wants that are cheap, easily delivered, and nondisruptive; making of token economy

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gamification strategy

answer

the creation of an environment that uses secondary reinforcers/a token economy to drive behavior in a particular setting

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core mechanism: self-explanation

answer

"talking it through" instruction; the goal is for readers to make connections when encoding and improve comprehension of expository materials

question

comprehension failures

answer

gaps and inconsistencies in mental models

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metacognition

answer

the explicit monitoring and regulating of thoughts and learning; thinking about thinking

question

mental models

answer

an representation of the world that people consider within themselves to help solve problems

question

core mechanism: learning by teaching

answer

a strategy to accept the responsibility to develop other people's understanding of something; the goal is to get better at understanding that thing yourself

question

protege effect

answer

the idea that people put in more effort to learn to teach others

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three phases of teaching

answer

preparation, action, and observation of student performance

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core mechanism: learning by undoing

answer

the strategy to weaken fallacies that are difficult to change; the goal is to find points of confusion and learn to accommodate rather than assimilate

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probabilistic reasoning

answer

using fundamental statistics to think a problem through by calculating combined outcomes especially when making judgments under uncertainty

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heuristic reasoning

answer

judgmental shortcut or stereotyping, immediate but not reasonable

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regression to the mean

answer

slipping back toward the average

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assimilation

answer

people make new information fit their current ideas

question

accommodation

answer

people change their ideas to fit the new piece of information

question

pedagogical content knowledge

answer

expert insight on how students think about domain-specific ideas

question

confirmation bias

answer

a fallacy in which people use reasoning to prove their ideas correct rather than disproving them

question

ad hoc reasoning

answer

a fallacy in which people maintain their faulty beliefs by making a special case for why it works

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core mechanism: visualization

answer

a process of creating outward spatial representation; the goal is to decrease cognitive load when making connections and relations between ideas by making thought process visible

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verbal overshadowing

answer

the blocking of interpretations by relying on less precise word memory instead of visual memory

question

core mechanism: worked examples

answer

models of expert solutions; the goal is to decrease cognitive load when encoding a procedure

question

cognitive load

answer

what your working memory can handle at a time (about 7 pieces of information); the amount of information necessary to think about at the same time in order to accomplish a task

question

core mechanism: excitement

answer

a mental state of increased alertness: heart rate, blood pressure, moist palms, attention, emotion; the goal is to combine arousal with proper attention in order to consolidate memory

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the effects of an arousing event

answer

adrenaline causes stress response, sending hormones to the amygdala or the emotion-processing center, which then sends the memory to be processed in other regions of the brain for long-term storage

question

choking

answer

the consequence mixing arousal and anxiety which triggers the prefrontal cortex to interfere with usually automatic behaviors

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core mechanism: yes I can

answer

self-efficacy or people's belief that they have what it takes to accomplish a goal; the goal is to combine self-regulation with task strategies in order to achieve effective growth mindset

question

fundamental attribution error

answer

blaming others or environment or schema when met with failure rather than a specific instance

question

schema

answer

the general representation for a set of behaviors in a situation

question

fixed mindset

answer

the type of thinking that people can't really change their intelligence

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growth mindset

answer

the type of thinking that people can improve intelligence and abilities with effort

question

self-regulated learning

answer

a set of skills targeted towards will: setting personal goals, organizing, metacognitive evaluating

question

learned helplessness

answer

the feeling of having no control over negative external disturbances and the collapse of self-efficacy

question

core mechanism: Zzzzzz

answer

sleep; the goal is to consolidate memory by getting enough sleep

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REM

answer

dream-filled rapid eye movement

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SWS

answer

deeper slow wave sleep in which your subconscious does a fast forward replay to move memory from hippocampus to other brain areas for long-term storage and thereby consolidating memory

question

secretion of melatonin

answer

most teenagers feel drowsy between 11pm-8am

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