test 3 – Microbiology Answers – Flashcards
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| [image] |
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| 1.Dendrite 2.Nerve Cell Body 3.Axon |
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| what are the two major divisions of the nervous system and what comprises them? |
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| 1. CNS = brain + spinal cord 2. PNS = cranial nerves + spinal nerves |
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| What is the autonomic nervous system? |
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| The visceral motor division of the nervous system (subset of the motor division of the peripheral nervous system) that innervates glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle. This system differs from the somatic motor system, which innervates skeletal muscle, and is under voluntary control. |
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| How is the autonomic nervous system subdivided? |
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| Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. |
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| Describe the general functions of the nervous system |
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| Sensory, integrative, and motor. |
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| What are the supporting cells for the CNS and the PNS? |
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| 1. CNS = neuroglia 2. PNS = Schwann, capsule, satellite |
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| how are the cell processes and cell bodies in each of the two major divisions of the nervous system aggregated? |
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| CNS- cell bodies are in gray matter, processes are in the white matter PNS- cell bodies are in ganglia, processes are in nerves |
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| define/label the various terms describing the morphology of a typical neuron |
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| 1. cell body (organelles, nucleus) 2. nucleus (active dispersed chromatin) 3. Nissl substance (lots of mitochondria, active protein synthesis here) 4. axon hillock (funnel for cytoskeletal elements) 5. nerve fibers (axons-single, thin, long, impulse conduction; dendrites-more, larger diameter, shorter, impulse conduction) 6. golgi apparatus (produce synaptic vesicles) 7. cytoskeletal elements (structural elements) |
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| match the type of neuron morphology observed in cells that have various functions within the nervous system (ie. motor, sensory, special sense) |
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| special senses - bipolar motor - multipolar sensory - bipolar |
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| What is myelin? |
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| the phospholipid-protein cell membrane of myelinating cells |
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| What cells form myelin in the CNS & PNS? |
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| CNS - oligodendrocytes PNS - Schwann cells |
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| How do the two myelinating cells differ in their ability to myelinate? |
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| Schwann cells - one part of one axon oligodendrocytes - one or more parts of multiple axons |
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| Describe how CT separates any nerve into various division (endo-, peri-, and epineurium) |
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| endoneurium - surrounds each nerve fiber perineurium - wraps groups of fibers into bundles or fascicles epineurium - wraps the entire nerve |
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| Define the support cells of the PNS |
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| 1. Schwann cells: myelinate fibers but may also support them in an unmyelinated state. Schwann cells are only associated with the nerve cell processes. 2. Satellite and Capsule cells support the cell body of a neuron in a ganglion of the PNS. These two cells are only associated with the neuron cell body. |
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| Name the 4 types of supporting cells (neuroglial cells) in the CNS. |
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| 1. astrocytes 2. oligodendrocytes 3. microglia 4. ependymal cells |
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| structural support between capillaries and neurons; form blood-brain barrier; monitor and control extra-cellular environment in the CNS |
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| astrocytes |
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| CNS myelin forming cells; guide development of neurons |
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| oligodendrocytes |
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| phagocytose pathogens and cellular debris; protective cells doing the job of macrophages in the PNS |
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| microglia |
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| columnar like cells that line the ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cord; associated with the cerebrospinal fluid. |
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| ependymal cells |
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| List in order, from superficial to deep, the 3 meninges (wrappings) of the CNS. |
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| dura mater - arachnoid mater - pia mater |
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| follow the path of the flow of CSF from formation to the venous circulation |
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| choroid plexus in ventricles (primarily lateral) to the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle to the subarachnoid space through arachnoid granulations and into the superior sagittal sinus (venous system) |
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| What structures produce CSF and where are they located? |
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| choroid plexus located in all 4 ventricles but primarily located in the two lateral ventricles |
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| What is the importance of CSF |
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| Mainly for cushioning the brain and spinal cord to prevent injury. |
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| What are the major dural folds? |
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| 1. falx cerebri 2. tentorium cerebelli 3. falx cerebelli 4. diaphragma sellae |
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| Name the venous sinuses |
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| 1. superior sagittal sinus 2. inferior sagittal sinus 3. cavernous sinus 4. confluence of the sinuses 5. transverse sinus 6. sigmoid sinus 7. occipital sinus |
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| How is each dural sinus formed |
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| by the splitting apart of the two layers of the dura; the meningeal becomes separated by the periosteal layer |
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| How is each dural fold formed? |
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| The meningeal layer of dural becomes separated from the periosteal layer and invaginates into the brain as a double layered structure |
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| Recall the 4 major vessels that contribute to the formation of the arterial circle on the base of the brain? |
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| 1. & 2. are the two vertebral arteries 3. & 4. are the two internal carotid arteries |
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| Describe the three main parts of the brain and the overall function of each region |
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| Cerebrum- sensory and motor functions; higher memory, reasoning Cerebellum-coordination of voluntary movements; balance Brainstem-visceral activities; interconnections |
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| discuss the unique features of the cerebrum that increase the surface areas for neuronal connections |
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| Gyri-bumps or folds of brain tissue Sulci-grooves These modifications allow for more nervous tissue to fit within the cranial cavity. |
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| summarize the fiber tracts of the cerebrum |
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| Association tracts-connect neurons in same hemisphere Commissural tracts-connect neurons in one hemisphere to neurons in the contralateral hemisphere (i.e. corpus callosum) Projection fibers-transmit impulses from cerebrum to other parts of the brain and spinal cord (i.e. ascending and descending tracts of the spinal cord) |
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| What are the 4 lobes of the cerebrum |
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| Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. |
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| what comprises the diencephalon |
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| thalamus & hypothalamus |
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| describe the functional regions of the cerebrum |
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| Motor areas: Primary motor cortex-skilled, voluntary motor movements Premotor cortex-repetitious/patterned motor skills Broca’s area-formulating speech Prefrontal cortex-voluntary movements of the eye (i.e. looking toward an object) Sensory Areas: Primary somatosensory cortex-conscious awareness of somatic senses (i.e. touch, pain) Somatosensory association cortex-evaluation of what is being felt Primary visual cortex-sight Visual association area-interpretation/evaluation of visual stimuli Primary auditory cortex-sensation of hearing Auditory association area—interpretation of sounds Wernicke’s area—recognition of spoken words Gustatory cortex-conscious awareness of taste Olfactory cortex-conscious awareness of smell |
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| What specific motor areas are part of the cerebral cortex? |
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| Primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, Broca’s area, and Prefrontal cortex |
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| What specific sensory areas are part of the cerebral cortex? |
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| Primary somatosensory cortex, somatosensory association cortex, primary visual cortex, visual association area, primary auditory cortex, auditory association area, Wernicke’s area, gustatory cortex, and olfactory cortex. |
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| describe the principal of the homunculus |
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| Somatotopy, or point-for-point correspondence, between a region of the body and an area of the pre-central (motor) or post-central (sensory) gyrus. The homunculus illustrates the relative amount of nervous tissue devoted to a region of the body (i.e. because coordination of the hands is so critical, a large region of the brain is devoted to innervation of the hands). |
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| what are the primary functions of the cerebellum and the parts of the brainstem? |
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| cerebellum- maintains posture and balance, maintains muscle tone, coordinates voluntary activity midbrain- reflex centers pons- communication between cerebrum and cerebellum medulla- centers for cardiac and respiratory activity, all ascending & descending tracts here. |
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| organization of the gray and white matter in the spinal cord |
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| white matter is on the outside (external) while the gray matter is internal |
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| What are the 3 funiculi of the spinal cord |
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| 1. posterior (dorsal) 2. anterior (ventral) 3. lateral |
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| What is a funiculus? |
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| groups of spinal cord white matter that contain ascending and descending tracts |
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| Which funiculus is solely concerned with ascending tracts? |
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| posterior (dorsal) funiculi |
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| What is the function of the ascending tracts? |
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| to convey sensory information from the periphery to the brain |
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| How many neurons are involved in relaying an impulse in an ascending tract? |
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| 3 |
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| what happens to the fibers in an ascending tract on their way to the brain? |
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| they all become crossed to the contralateral side of the cord; either at the same level or one or two level superior |
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| what is the function of the descending tracts? |
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| to convey impulses from the brain to lower motor neurons |
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| what are the two main groups of descending tracts? |
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| 1. pyramidal 2. extrapyramidal |
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| explain the non-segmental arrangement of spinal nerves when they form a plexus |
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| non-segmental nerves split and combine with other nerves to form network of nerves called a plexus. A plexus of nerves is then capable of sending fibers from multiple spinal cord levels to specific areas of the body. |
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| Which part of the spinal nerve contributes to the plexus? |
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| ventral primary rami |
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| What happens to the dorsal rami of a non-segmental spinal nerve? |
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| the same thing that happens to the dorsal ramus in typical nerves, it is distributed to the dorsal body wall for sensory and motor innervation |
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| From what vertebral levels do the 3 plexuses discussed arise? |
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| brachial plexus: C5-T1 lumbosacral plexus: L1-S4 Cervical plexus: C1-C4 |
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| What is each plexuses responsible for innervating? |
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| brachial plexus = upper limb lumbosacral plexus = lower limb |
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| What is meant by the term: typical spinal nerves |
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| the typical spinal nerve distributes to the periphery without ramifying with any other nerves to form a plexus |
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| What vertebral levels exhibit typical spinal nerves? |
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| T2-T11 are great examples of typical spinal nerves |
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| What does a typical spinal nerve supply? |
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| a typical body segment, a dermatome with sensory and motor innervation |
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| What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system? |
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| sympathetic and parasympathetic |
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| What are the general functions of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system? |
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| sympathetic - excitatory parasympathetic - inhibitory |
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| What is meant by a two neuron system in the ANS? |
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| meaning that from the CNS to the effector there are only 2 neurons |
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| How is the two neuron system in the ANS constructed? |
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| a preganglionic neuron has its cell body in the CNS, this neurons axon leaves the CNS and synapes in a peripheral ganglia on the postganglionic cell body whose axon then stimulates or inhibits the effector organ |
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| Where are the preganglionic cell bodies of each division of the ANS located and what are their anatomically based names? |
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| sympathetic- T1-L2: thoracolumbar division parasympathetic- brain stem & S2-S4: craniosacral division |
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| What are the 3 types of autonomic ganglia? |
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| 1. paravertebral 2. prevertebral 3. intramural |
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| Where is each type of sympathetic ganglia found? |
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| paravertebral- along the sympathetic trunk which runs on either side of the vertebral column prevertebral- near named branches off of the abdominal aorta (which runs infront of the vertebral column) intramural- in or near the effector organs wall |
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| Generalize the differences between the two divisions of the ANS made obvious by the summary schematic diagram |
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| The parasympathetic system has discreet localized control and is heavily involved in digestion and resting-type activities. The sympathetic system has wide-spread generalized effects geared towards rapid action. |
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| Which neurotransmitters are used in each synapse of the ANS? |
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| preganglionic sympathetic - acetycholine postganglionic sympathetic - norepinephrine preganglionic parasympathetic - acetycholine postganglionic parasympathetic - acetycholine |
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| Compare visceral and somatic afferents and efferents |
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| Somatic afferents are sensory fibers from the body wall/extremities. Somatic efferents are motor fibers that extend out to the body wall/extremities. Visceral afferents are sensory fibers from the body viscera (organs). Visceral efferents are motor fibers that extend out to the viscera (organs - these are generally ANS motor fibers). |
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| Describe the origin and distribution of proximal-distal referred pain and give an example of it. |
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| The injury is proximal to the CNS but the pain is felt along the ventral ramus of the spinal nerve distal from that site. Herniated disc: the spinal nerve is pinched where it exits the intervertebral foramen by the herniated disc but the pain is felt along the entire dermatome. |
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| describe the origin and distribution of somatic (embryological) referred pain and give an example of it. |
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| Pain is felt referred out along body dermatomes distant from the site of pain stimulus due to the migration of the structure during embryological development. Pain from the diaphragm being referred to skin over the ear. The diaphragm was a cervical structure initially (innervated by C3,4,5) but descended to the location between the thorax and abdomen. Therefore, pain on the diaphragmatic pleura is commonly referred back to the dermatomes supplied by C3,4,5 - the neck and external ear. |
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| Describe the origin and distribution of visceral/somatic referred pain via the sensory afferents and give an example of it. |
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| The visceral afferent (sensory) fibers come back through the splanchnic nn. and pass into the ventral ramus of the spinal nn. via the white rami communicans. Since theses fibers pass along the ventral ramus for a short distance before entering the spinal n. to access the spinal cord, the pain is mistakenly referred out along the ventral ramus in a proximal-distal fashion to the body dermatome. Pain from a myocardial infarction (heart attack) travels back through the ventral rami of T1 through T4. The dermatomes for these nn. extend out along the medial aspect of the left upper limb. The left side is affected as the heart is a structure found to the left of the body midline. |
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| List the three common referred pain sites (dermatomes) |
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| Heart: T1-T4; appendix: T10; testis: T10. |
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| what are the special senses? |
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| 1. Olfaction (smell) 2. gustation (taste) 3. vision (sight) 4. audition (hearing) 5. equilibrium (balance). |
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| Which type of neuron is generally involved as a sensory receptor? |
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| A bipolar neuron. |
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| Which cranial nerve is involved in olfaction? |
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| CN I - the olfactory n. |
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| What types of cells are found within taste buds? |
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| gustatory cells surrounded by supporting cells |
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| identify the four primary types of taste |
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| sweet, sour, salty, bitter |
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| What structures receive taste sensations? |
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| taste buds |
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| Where are the structures that receive taste sensations located? |
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| Primarily on the lingual papillae - especially the circumvallate papillae. |
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| Which cranial nerves are involved in taste sensation? |
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| CN VII (facial) for the anterior 2/3s of tongue; CN IX (glossopharyngeal) for the posterior 1/3 of the tongue; CN X (vagus) for the taste buds scattered over the epiglottis and pharynx. |
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| what is the function of the serous glands at the base/between the lingual papillae? |
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| The secrete a serous (watery) solution that washes taste stimuli away from the taste pores of the taste buds. This allows you to taste subsequent stimuli. |
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| What two senses are performed by the various compartments of the ear? |
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| Middle ear = hearing; inner ear = hearing and balance. |
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| Which bones are involved in hearing? |
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| Malleus, incus & stapes. |
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| Which compartment of the ear are the auditory ossicles found in? |
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| middle ear |
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| what structure forms tears? |
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| The lacrimal gland |
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| Where are the tears drained? |
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| Into the inferior meatus of the nasal cavity. |
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| What structure connects where the tears are formed to where they are drained? |
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| the nasolacrimal duct |
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| What structures reinforce the structure of the eyelids? |
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| The superior and inferior tarsal plates. |
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| What is the conjunctiva? |
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| the mucous membrane lining the inner surface of the eyelids and reflected back onto the eyeball which it also covers, it forms a conjunctival sac |
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| Describe the three layers of the eyeball and the specific layer involved in photoreception. |
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| sclera-outermost tough, white portion of eye. choroid-vascularized, middle area of eye retina-photoreceptors are located in the retina. |
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| Where is the aqueous humor produced? |
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| Ciliary body |
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| Where does the aqueous humor go? |
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| Anterior and posterior chambers |
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| Where is the aqueous humor drained? |
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| Flows through the pupil, into venous channels at the iridial angle. |
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| Describe the role of the ciliaris muscle in accomodation. |
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| Ciliaris contraction-lens bulges or thickens to allow for close-up vision. Ciliaris relaxation-lens capsule stretches or flattens for distant vision. |
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| be able to define what an endocrine organ is. |
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| cells, tissues and organs that secrete hormones directly into the blood |
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| differentiate between the functions of the endocrine vs. nervous systems |
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| endocrine: uses blood to transport hormones, causes changes in metabolism of specific cells, exerts effects slowly, & has prolonged effects nervous: uses nerve fibers to transmit impulses, causes glands to secrete, exerts its effects rapidly, & its effects are brief |
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| describe the principle of a negative feedback system that is commonly used in the endocrine system. |
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| A negative feedback system is designed so that a build-up of the product that is being produced as a result of hormonal regulation leads to the inhibition of its release, usually through another hormonal or chemical signal. In other words, the feedback negatively regulates or reduces the output of the system. (i.e. calcitonin is released by the thyroid gland to reduce free Ca2+ levels in the blood; once these levels are returned to normal, calcitonin is no longer released). |
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| Categorize the 3 classes of hormones, and provide an example of each as well as their method of administration. |
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| 1. steroid, sex hormones, oral of intravenous administration 2. protein, pituitary hormones, intravenous, intramuscular or subQ administration 3. amine, thyroxine, oral, intravenous or as an inhalent |
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| List two ways that hormonal secretion is controlled |
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| 1. negative feedback system 2. nervous control |
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| list the various other endocrine organs controlled by secretions of the adenohypophysis. |
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| 1. adrenal cortex 2. body cells 3. mammary gland 4. ovary 5. testes 6. thyroid gland |
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| how does the neurohypophysis fundamentally differ from the adenohypophysis? |
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| neurohypophysis does not synthesize any hormones, though it does store and secrete them. adenohypophysis synthesizes and secretes hormones |
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| where on the pituitary gland are neurohypophysis and adenohypophysis related? |
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| adenohypophysis: anterior pituitary neurohypophysis: posterior pituitary |
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| List the organs controlled by hormones from the neurohypophysis. |
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| 1. uterus 2. mammary gland 3. kidney |
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| List the hormones involved with the neurohypophysis and their actions. |
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| 1. antidiuretic hormone- decreases urine production by telling kidneys to decrease urine secretion 2. oxytocin- decreases urine production, stimulates uterine wall contraction, causes contraction of milk glands |
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| be able to describe the location and general anatomical structure of the thyroid gland. |
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| located immediately below the larynx 2 lobes connected by an isthmus capsule surrounding it follicles filled with colloid |
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| What two types of cells compose the thyroid gland? |
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| 1. principal cells 2. parafollicular cells |
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| What hormones are secreted from which cells in the thyroid gland? |
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| 1. thyroxine & triiodothyronine by the principal cells 2. calcitonin by the parafollicular cells |
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| What is the general function of each hormone secreted by the thyroid gland? |
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| calcitonin decreases calcium and phosphate concentration by inhibiting their release from bones and increasing secretion by the kidneys. Thyroxine and triiodithyronine both regulate the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins and causes normal nervous system development. |
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| Where are the parathyroid glands located? |
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| located on the posterior surface of the thyroid |
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| What hormone is secreted by the parathyroid gland and what is its function. |
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| Parathryoid hormone (PTH)—increases free Ca2+ levels by increasing calcium absorption in the intestines, inhibiting Ca2+ secretion in the urine, and by increasing osteoclast activity in bone. |
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| Which cell type in the parathyroid gland secretes PTH? |
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| Chief cells |
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| How are the parathyroid glands antagonistic to the thyroid gland? |
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| Release of PTH from the parathyroid hormone leads to an increase in free Ca2+ levels in the blood (reasons stated above in question 2416). However, calcitonin, which is released by the thyroid gland, decreases circulating levels of Ca2+ by inhibiting the bone-resorbing activity of osteoclasts. |
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| What is the endocrine portion of the pancreas called? |
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| Islets of Langerhans |
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| What two cell types compose the endocrine portion of the pancreas? |
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| alpha cells beta cells |
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| What hormones do each of the cell types in the endocrine portion of the pancreas secrete and what is their function? |
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| alpha cells - glucagon: acts on liver to raise blood glucose beta cells - insulin: acts on muscle and fat cell membranes to decrease blood glucose levels |
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| Where are the suprarenal glands located? |
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| they sit on top of the kidneys |
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| What is the general anatomical arrangement of the suprarenal glands? |
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| there is an outer cortex surrounding a medulla |
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| Name the gonad in each sex and their primary hormone. |
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| ovaries (female)- estrogen & progesterone testes (male)- testosterone |
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| What does the pineal gland secrete and where is it located? |
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| located deep in the brain, it secretes melatonin |
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| Where is the thymus located |
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| in the anterior mediastinum |
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| What hormone does the thymus secrete, and what is its function? |
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| thymosin, thymosin causes the differentiation of T lymphocytes |
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| 1. Dendrites 2. cell body 3. nucleus 4. axon |
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| 1. nissi substance 2. axon hillock |
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| 1. axon collateral 2. axon |
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| 1. dendrites |
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| 1. axon 2. dendrites multipolar neuron: these large star shaped cells are characteristic of motor neurons; there is only one axon and numerous tree-like branching dendrites. |
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| top: axon middle: cell body bottom: dendrite Bipolar neurons:Each nerve cell body has 2 processes at opposite ends of the cell – one axon and one dendrite. Found in organs of special sense – olfactory epithelium (nose – smell) and retina of the eye (sight) are examples. |
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| 1. sensory 2. interneuron 3. motor |
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| 1. internodes 2. node of ranvier |
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| Title: myelination in the PNS 1. schwann cell 2. axon 3. nucleus of the schwann cell 4. myelin sheath |
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| Title: In the PNS 1. node of ranvier 2. schwann cell cytoplasm 3. schwann cell nucleus 4. myelin sheath 5. axon 6. internode |
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| Title: in the CNS 1. myelinated axon from one oligodendrocyte |
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| Title: unmyelinated nerve fibers 1. axons 2. schwann cell nucleus 3. schwann cell cytoplasm |
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| 1. epineurium 2. perineurium 3. endoneurium |
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| title: neuroglial cell types 1. capillary 2. astrocytes 3. oligodendrocytes 4. astrocyte forming the blood-brain barrier with the capillary. |
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| Title: neuroglial cell types 2 1. microglia 2. ependymal cells |
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| 1. cerebrum 2. brainstem 3. cerebellum |
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| Title: components of the Dura Mater 1. Bone of the Skull 2. periosteal layer of dura 3. brain 4. meningeal layer of dura 5. dural fold 6. dural sinus 7. dura mater |
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| Title: components of the arachnoid and pia 1. bone of the skull 2. arachnoid granulation 3. dural sinus 4. dura mater 5. dural fold 6. subarachnoid space (filled with CSF) 7. brain 8. pia mater 9. arachnoid |
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| 1. arachnoid villus (clusters of villi = arachnoid granulations) 2. superior sagittal sinus 3. dura 4. arachnoid mater 5. arachnoid granulations |
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| Title: subdural hematoma 1. dural sinus 2. bridging vein 3. superior cerebral vein |
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| 1. interventricular foramen 2. lateral ventricles 3. 3rd ventricle 4. 4th ventricle 5. cerebral aqueduct |
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| 1. 4th ventricle 2. cerebral aqueduct 3. 3rd ventricle 4. interventricular foramen 5. lateral ventricle |
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| 1. left/right lateral apertures 2. median aperture 3. central canal of the spinal cord (4th ventricle is continuous with this) |
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| 1. 4th ventricle 2. lateral ventricle 3. 3rd ventricle everything else is the choroid plexus - specialized tufts of pia mater and their underlying capillaries, secretes CSF. |
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| 1. lateral and median apertures: CSF escapes the ventricular system via these. 2. central canal of the spinal cord 3. subarchnoid space |
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| 1. archnoid granulations 2. venous dural sinus |
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| Describe the flow of CSF |
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| CSF is secreted by the choroid plexus in each lateral ventricle. CSF flow through inter-ventricular foramine into third ventricle. Choroid plexus in third ventricle adds more CSF. CSF flows down cerebral aqueduct to fourth ventricle. Choroid plexus in fourth ventricle adds more CSF. CSF flow out two lateral apertures and one median aperture. CSF fills subarchnoid space and bathes external surfaces of brain and spinal cord. At arachnoid villi, CSF is resorbed into venous blood of dural venous sinuses |
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| 1. periosteal layer of dura 2. venous sinus 3. meningeal layer of dura 4. dural fold |
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| 1. falx cerebri 2. diaphragma sellae 3. tentorium incisure 4. tentorium cerebelli 5. falx cerebelli |
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| 1. superior sagittal sinus 2. inferior sagittal sinus 3. straight sinus 4. confluens of sinuses 5. transverse sinus 6. sigmoid sinus 7. internal jugular vein |
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| 1. cavernous sinus 2. superior petrosal sinus 3. inferior petrosal sinus 4. pterygoid plexus 5. internal jugular vein 6. facial vein 7. angular vein 8. superior ophthalmic vein |
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| 1. vertebral arteries 2. internal carotid arteries |
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| 1. common carotid artery 2. vertebral artery 3. vertebral artery 4. internal carotid artery |
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| arterial circle of Willis aka cerebral arterial circle |
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| 1. posterior cerebral artery 2. basilar artery 3. anterior cerebral artery 4. middle cerebral artery 5. internal carotid artery Note: all arteries on this diagram are bilateral, except the basilar artery |
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| 1. anterior communicating artery 2. posterior communicating aa. |
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| 1. anterior communicating a. 2. middle cerebral a. 3. posterior cerebral a. 4. internal carotid a. 5. basilar a. 6. anterior cerebral a. 7. posterior communicating a. |
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| 1.gyrus 2. sulcus |
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| collections of neuronal cell bodies within the central nervous system (brain or spinal cord) are called ___ |
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| nuclei |
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| collections of neuronal cell bodies outside the central nervous system (i.e. located in the PNS) are called ____ |
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| ganglia |
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| 1. corpus callosum |
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| 1. Association tracts: connect neurons in the same area 2. Commissural tracts: connect neurons in one cerebral hemisphere with neurons in the opposite hemisphere, i.e. the corpus callosum. |
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| 3. projection tracts: transmit impulses from cerebrum to other areas of the brain and spinal cord, i.e. ascending and descending tracts of the spinal cord. |
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| 1. central sulcas 2. lateral sulcus 3. insular lobe: receives sensory input/involved with emotions relating to sensory input 4. parietal occipital sulcus |
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| 1. frontal lobe: voluntary motor control 2. central sulcus |
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| 2. parietal lobe: primary somatosensory cortex 3. temporal lobe: primary auditory cortex 4. occipital lobe: primary visual cortex |
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| 1. thalamus 2. hypothalamus |
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| 1. primary motor cortex 2. central sulcas |
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| 1. premotor cortex 2. pre-central gyrus 3. central sulcas |
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| 1. Prefrontal cortex: controls voluntary movements of the eyes 2. Brocas area: coordinates tongue, lips, and larynx |
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| 1. central sulcus 2. primary somatosensory cortex: involved with conscious awareness of general somatic senses (touch, pain, etc) 3. postcentral gyrus |
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| 1. somatosensory association area: this region integrates different sensory inputs (touch, pressure, etc.) into a comprehensive evaluation of what is being felt. |
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| 1. primary visual cortex: located in occipital cortex, damage here results in functional blindness (no conscious awareness of what eye has viewed) 2. visual association area: covers most of the occipital lobe and cerebrum; interprets & evaluates visual stimuli, relating them to past visual experiences; damage here results in the inability to understand what you are seeing |
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| 1. wernickes area: area responsible for recognizing spoken words 2. auditory association area: it allows interpretation of sounds such as bang, thunder, scream, etc. 3. primary auditory cortex: auditory information interpreted here (loudness, rhythm, and pitch) |
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| 1. gustatory (taste) cortex: it is involved in conscious awareness of taste stimuli. 2. Primary olfactory cortex: receives olfactory stimulit from CNI(olfactory tract), and it is responsible for the conscious awareness of smell. |
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| top part is the thalamus 1. midbrain: visual/audio reflex centers 2. Pons: communications between cerebrum and cerebellum 3. Medulla: Cardiac and respiratory centers; decussation (crossing) of the pyramids (corticospinal tracts) as well as all of the rest of the ascending and descending tracts. 4.Location of the midbrain |
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| 1. cerebrum 2. Brain stem 3. Cerebellum: 1) maintains posture and balance 2) maintains muscle tone 3) coordinate voluntary muscle activity; reflex center for position of body |
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| 1. cervical enlargement (C5-T1) that gives rise to a 2. Brachial plexus: supplies the upper limb 3. Lumbar enlargement (L1-S5) that forms the 4. lumbosacral plexus: supplies the lower limb |
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| 1. Conus Medullaris: spinal cord terminates at this tapering at L1/L2 2. Filum terminale: an extension of pia mater coming off the end of the spinal cord and anchoring the cord to the coccyx. 3. cauda equina (horses tail): spinal nerves that supply regions below L2 and extend downward through the dural sheath. |
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| 1. gray matter: gray matter is located internally in an H shaped configuration 2. white matter |
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| 1. dorsal gray horn: contains sensory association areas 2. gray commissure: links the two sides of the gray matter and contains the central canal of the spinal cord. 3. ventral gray horn: contains motor neurons 4. central canal of the spinal cord |
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| The spinal cord periphery is composed of white matter and is divided into funiculi. These funiculi (anterior, posterior, lateral) contain vertical columns of fibers called ascending or descending tracts. The columns within the posterior (dorsal) funiculi are composed of all ascending tracts, these include: 1. fasciculus gracilis 2. fasciculus cuneatus 3. dorsal (posterior) funiculus |
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| title: Ascending (sensory) spinal tract 1. 1st order neuron 2. 2nd order neuron 3. 3rd order neuron all ascending tracts cross to the opposite side of the cord from where they entered, either at the level of entry or a level or two above it sensory information received by receptors on the right side is interpreted in the left cerebral cortex and vice versa |
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| title: Descending (motor) spinal tracts 1. upper motor neuron 2. lower motor neuron carry impulses from the brain to lower motor neurons that regulate the activity of skeletal muscle. All tracts cross from one side to the other and consist of two or three consecutive neurons in a chain. |
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| 1. Dorsal gray horn 2. ventral gray horn |
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| 1. dorsal root 2. ventral root 3. spinal nerve 4. dorsal ramus 5. ventral ramus |
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| 1. dorsal root 2. spinal nerve 3. ventral root 4. dorsal ramus 5. ventral ramus |
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| 1. dorsal root: carries sensory fibers from the periphery back to the spinal cord and is therefore an incoming route, or afferent 2. dorsal root ganglion: if there are neuron cell bodies present in the PNS, it must be a gangion |
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| 1. motor neuron cell body 2. ventral root: carries motor fibers from the CNS out to the peripheral aspects of the body. Therefore, it is an outgoing route-referred to as efferent. |
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| Title: Dorsal and Ventral Rami Carry Mixed Fibers 1. true spinal nerve 2. Dorsal Ramus 3. Ventral Ramus |
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| 1. dorsal ramus 2. ventrual ramus 3. lateral cutaneous br. 4. anterior cutaneous br. |
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| 1. cervical plexus (C1-C4) 2. Brachial Plexus (C5-T1) 3. Dorsal Rami: remains segmental in each case 4. lumbosacral plexus (L1-S4) |
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| 1. brachial plexus: C5-T1 2. muscolocutaneous n. 3. axillary n. 4. radial n. 5. Median n. 6. ulnar n. |
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| 1. Lumbosacral Plexus: L1-L4 2. Femoral N. 3. Obturator n. |
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| 1. Sacral Plexus L4-S4 2. Common Fibular N. 3. Tibial N. 4. Pudendal N. |
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| 1)CN I ; is the most cephalic 2) CN XII is the most caudal |
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| 1.purely sensory 2. purely motor 3. motor & sensory (mixed) 4. motor & parasympathetic 5. motor, sensory & parasympathetic |
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| CN I Olfactory CN II Optic CN III Oculomotor CN IV Trochlear CN V Trigeminal |
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| CN VI Abducens CN VII Facial CN VIII Vestibulocochlear CN IX Glossopharyngeal CN X Vagus CN XI Accessory CN XII Hypoglossal |
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| 1. true spinal nerve 2. dorsal ramus 3. ventral ramus |
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| Sympathetic Parasympathetic 1. vasoconstricts 1. vasodilates 2. inhibition of secretion 2. stimulation of secretion except sweat glands 3. decrease 3. increase 4. stimulates increase in rate 4. inhibits rate & force & force of beat of beat 5. bronchodilates 5. bronchoconstricts 6. constriction 6. relaxation 7. inhibits bladder emptying 7. stimulates bladder empty 8. ejaculation 8. erection 9. dilation 9. constriction |
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| 1. preganglionic fiber 2. autonomic ganglion 3. postganglionic fiber |
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| 1. prevertebral ganglia 2. celiac ganglia 3. superior mesentric ganglion 4. inferior mesentric ganglion 5. sympathetic trunk |
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| 1. dorsal ramus 2. ventral ramus 3. sympathetic trunk |
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| 1. preganglionic sympathetic fiber 2. postganglionic sympathetic fiber 3. ventral ramus 4. gray ramus communicans |
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| 1. splanchnic nerve 2. prevertebral ganglion |
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| 1. splanchnic nerve 2. prevertebral ganglion 3. postganglionic sympathetic |
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| 1. preganglionic parasympathetic fiber of the vagus 2. postganglionic parasympathetic fibers 3. intramural ganglion |
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| title: proximal-distal referred pain 1. site of spinal nerve being pinched 2. intervertebral disc herniates posteriorly |
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| title: embryologically-derived referred pain 1. embryological origin of the diaphragm 2. innervated by C3, C4, C5 the phrenic nerve |
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| 1. phrenic nerve pulled along as diaphragm descends 2. diaphragm pushed inferiorly during embryonic development |
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| 1) papillae |
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| 1) taste bud 2) supporting cell 3) gustatory cell |
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| 1) taste bud |
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| 1) CN VII or CN IX |
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| 2) medulla 3) thalamus 4) cortex |
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| 1) tympanic membrane 2) tympanic cavity |
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| 1) incus 2) stapes 3) malleus |
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| 1) incus 2) stapes 3) malleus 4) auditory tube |
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| 1) osseous: bony canal in temporal bone 2) membranous: inside osseous labyrinth 3) perilymph: fluid in between the two |
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| 1) semicircular canals 2) cochlea |
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| modiolus |
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| 1) scala vestibuli 2) cochlear duct 3) scala tympani |
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| 1) cochlear duct 2) hair cells 3) tectorial membrane 4) basilar membrane |
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| 1) cochlea 2) temporal lobe |
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| 1) vestibule 2) utricle 3) saccule |
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| 1) otoliths 2) hair cells 3) macula |
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| 1) ampulla |
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| 1) hair cells 2) CN VIII 3) cupula |
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| 1. semicircular canal moves as head turns 2. endolymph lags behind due to inertia 3) cupula is pushed over and stimulates hair cells and CN VIII |
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| 1. eyebrow 2. eyelid 3. palpebral fissure 4. sclera 5. eyelid 6. iris 7. pupil 8. lacrimal caruncle |
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| 1) lacrimal gland |
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| 1. tarsal plate 2. cilia |
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| 1. palpebral 2. bulbar |
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| 1. superior oblique 2. inferior oblique Both ABduct the eye!!! |
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| 1. superior rectus 2. inferior rectus 3. superior rectus 4. inferior rectus Both ADDuct the eye!!! |
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| 1. lateral rectus: abduction of the eye (pupil); makes you look outward (away from the nose) 2) Medial rectus: adduction of the eye (pupil); makes you look inward (toward nose) |
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| 1) lecator palpebrae superioris: elevation of the upper eyelid 2) Tarsal plate |
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| 1. choroid 2. Retina: photoreceptor cells that detect light, the area of highest visual acuity in the retina is called the macula lutea (yellow spot) 3. macula lutea |
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| 1) fovea centralis: center of macula lutea; area of highest density of photoreceptors 2) macula lutea: area of highest visual acuity in the retina |
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| Rods: more of them, low light, fuzzy Cones: needs light, best acuity, color, separate types for rgb |
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| 1) Ciliary body: continually secretes aqueous humor that fills both chambers 2) posterior chamber: behind iris but in front of lens 3) lens 4) anterior chamber: in front of the iris |
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| 1. anterior chamber 2) pupil 3. ciliary body: aqueous humor is continuously secreted by the ciliary body located in the posterior chamber 4. posterior chamber 5) lens |
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| 1) ciliaris muscle: part of the ciliary body that the suspensory ligaments attach to in a radial fashion 2) suspensory ligaments: hold the lens in place 3)lens |
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| 1) infundibulum: attached to the hypothalamus of the overlying brain by a stalk 2) anterior lobe/adenohypophysis 3) posterior lobe/ neurohypphysis |
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| Neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary) is the nervous portion derived from a down growth of the brain and is composed of two main regions: 1) infundibulum 2) pars nervosa |
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| 1. larynx 2. lateral lobes 3. isthmus supplied with blood from the superior and inferior thyroid arteries |
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| 1. thyroid follicles: the thyroid gland is divided into these 2. colloid: thick, protein rich substance secreted by principal (follicular) cell 3. principal (follicular) cells |
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| 1) parathyroid glands: 2 superior and 2 inferior glands located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland |
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| 1) suprarenal gland 2) cortex: composed of epithelial cells divided into 3 zones and secreting over 30 different hormones 3) medulla: under sympathetic control, secretes epinepherine and norepinephrine. |
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| 1) tail of pancreas 2) body of pancreas 3) head of pancreas (hollowed out layer) |
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| 1) exocrine acini shown in gray 2) alpha cells 3) beta cells 4) delta cells |
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| - in anterior mediastinum in childhood - regresses at puberty - secretes thymosin, controlling differentiation of T cells 1) thymus 2) thymus |
