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Studying deviance in sports presents problems in that

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actions that are normal in sports may be deviant outside sports.

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As the term is used by sociologists, deviance

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can involve a person's ideas and traits as well as actions.

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According to an absolutist approach to studying deviance

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all deviance is caused by a lack of moral character or a moral failure.

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The author describes a model of a professional athlete's career to show that

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cyclists use drugs in order to do their jobs successfully.

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Athletes today sometimes seem to engage in more sport-related forms of deviance than athletes in the past because

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sports and sport organizations have more rules today than in the past.

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Sport programs that are designed as "interventions" for "at risk youth" are seldom successful because they

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do nothing to change the conditions in which these youth live their lives.

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Understanding deviance in sports requires an understanding of "the sport ethic." Which of the following beliefs is NOT one of the core norms of the sport ethic?

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An athlete accepts pain but avoids risks.

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Research on sport participation and general delinquency rates generally shows that delinquency rates among athletes are

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often lower than rates for other students from similar backgrounds.

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Historical data suggests that most substance use and abuse among athletes is due to

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overconformity to the sport ethic among athletes.

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To make changes that would decrease deviant overconformity, sport would have to be organized around a commitment to

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the health and well-being of athletes.

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Research on normative overconformity suggests that if we wish to understand this form of deviance we must

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critically examine the organization and dynamics of elite sport cultures.

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The people most likely to agree with the war on doping as waged by WADA and USADA are

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believers in the great sport myth.

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Deviance may involve underconformity or overconformity to norms. The author explains that deviance involving underconformity consists of ideas, traits, or actions that

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are subnormal.

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When athletes collectively dedicate themselves to a goal and willingly endure pain and make sacrifices to achieve it, they often create a social world in which

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deviant overconformity becomes normalized.

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A constructionist approach to deviance is based on the assumption that

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most ideas, traits, and actions fall into a normally accepted range.

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A social constructionist approach to deviance is based on

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a combination of cultural, interactionist, and structural theories.

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A reason that athletes may overconform to the norms of the sport ethic is because they

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seek identity reaffirmation from other athlete.

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One of the reasons that it is difficult to study deviance in sports is that much of it involves actions grounded in

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accepting and overconforming to norms in sport cultures.

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It has become difficult to determine what actions are deviant and what actions are accepted parts of athletic training today because

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all training involves surpassing limits that are accepted as normal in society.

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Anarchy is the social condition that exists when

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widespread underconformity creates general lawlessness.

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When violence occurs in connection with widespread rejection of norms it often is described as anarchy; when it occurs in connection with blind obedience to norms and autocratic leaders, it is described as

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fascism

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Research indicates that concussions as well as repetitive subconcussive head hits can cause brain injuries that may lead to CTE—chronic traumatic encephalopathy. CTE is a neurodegenerative disease with symptoms similar to

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early onset dementia.

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Research suggests that violent confrontations between sport spectators is most likely when

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there are existing tensions and conflicts in a community or society.

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According to the author, watching sports on television often leads viewers to be

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emotionally expressive, but not overtly violent.

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In the culture of heavy contact sports, there is a general norm emphasizing that

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violence is part of the game.

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Learning to use violence as a strategy in sports tends to be highest in

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heavy contact sports.

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Research shows that boys and men who play power and performance sports learn that they will be

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evaluated favorably for their ability to combine violence and skills.

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Loic Wacquant's study of an inner-city boxing gym in Chicago indicated that the boxers

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learned to control violent actions as they learned the craft of boxing.

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Social historians suggest that violence remains an issue in sports because

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sports are designed to create tension and excitement.

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Historical evidence shows that compared to spectators in the past, spectators today are

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less violent and less likely to disrupt action on the field.

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Sport participation may help people learn to control aggressive action in their lives. This has occurred in connection with some combat sports when the

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coaches promote norms emphasizing non-violence and respect for self and others.

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Some forms of violence are accepted widely by athletes and even used as a basis for gaining status among fellow athletes. These include

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borderline violence and brutal body contact.

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The author suggests that violence against women by male athletes is associated with at least five specific aspects of the culture of men's sports. Which of the following is NOT one of those aspects?

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Repressed feelings of hostility created by failures on the field.

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Soccer spectators outside of North America are more likely than North American sport spectators to use sport event as site to

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express political positions.

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According to the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism,

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sport events can be attractive to terrorists because they receive media coverage.

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A study by Nancy Theberge found that elite women ice hockey players have a difficult time controlling all forms of brutal body contact in their sport because

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they love the physicality of ice hockey.

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Due to general fears about terrorist attacks at sport events, people

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are more willing to accept a militaristic approach to social control at events.

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When playing power and performance sports boys and men learn that

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being violent will help them avoid labels such as "wimp" and "fag."

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It is difficult to reduce the injuries that occur in power and performance sports because

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most serious injuries occur within the rules in these sports.

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Rates of violence are higher in men's sports than in women's sports because

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violence is tied to issues of masculinity for many men in sports.

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After 40 years, Title IX remains a controversial law as it applies to sports. A key reason for this is that

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it exposes contradictions in big-time sport programs organized around football.

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When journalist H. G. Bissinger studied the football team in a well-known Texas high school, he found that high school football was organized in ways that

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reaffirmed traditional racial ideology among many whites.

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The use of corporate sponsorships to support high school sports is risky because

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sports could lose funding during economic recessions.

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The professors who established The Drake Group argue that there will be no meaningful reforms in intercollegiate sports unless the

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college sports are monitored by an agency independent of the NCAA.

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Research suggests that future reforms must address problems related to the

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growing separation between university culture and college sport culture.

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Making a positive connection between playing college sports and achieving social and academic goals is most likely when athletes

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receive social support for academic achievement and academic identities.

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Research shows that when high school athletes as a group are compared to other high school students, they tend to have

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higher grades and more positive attitudes toward school.

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A study by Doug Foley found that high school sports were a site at which students learned a vocabulary that promoted values emphasizing

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individualism and competition.

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A study done in the late-1990s found that young women who played school sports had lower rates of sexual activity than other young women, while young men who played sports had higher rates of sexual activity than other young men. This illustrates that

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social factors influence the meanings and consequences of playing sports.

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The median revenues and expenditures for the universities in each of the three Division I subdivisions shows that

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the schools with the highest profile football teams show the largest deficits.

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Much of the difference between athletes and other students in high school is due to

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selection-in and filtering-out processes.

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Budget information for college athletic programs show that the programs could not exist with receive a significant amount of money from

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Student fees

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Research that tracks students over time shows that in comparison with other students, the students who try out, are selected for, and stay on school teams

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have above average self-esteem.

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In the Southeastern Conference, the most successful college football conference in the United States, the universities spent an average of $13.400 on each student, whereas for each football player they spent an average of about

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160,000

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Since 1983 the NCAA has enforced increasingly strict rules about academic standards. A major goal of these rules has been to

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alert high school students of the importance of academic achievement.

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Among male athletes in big-time college sport programs, there is a tendency for athletic identities to be given a higher priority than academic identities because of

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the social support they receive for athletic participation.

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As high school programs depend more on the families of athletes and local businesses to support varsity teams we see

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greater inequality in the athletic programs at different schools.

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The percentage of high school budgets that are spent on the operational expenses for varsity sport programs is

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less than 2 %

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Widespread acceptance of the great sport myth has led to a situation in which we can

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not provide systematic evidence showing that school sports promote education.

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The liability issues related to concussions and other serious injuries are different in high schools than they are in colleges. This is because

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few high school athletes have reached the age of informed legal consent.

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