Sociology Ch. 1-4 – Flashcards
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sociology
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the systematic study of social interaction at a variety of levels
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sociological imagination
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the intersection between individual lives and larger social influences
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microsociology
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the study of small-scale patterns of individuals' social interaction in specific settings
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macrosociology
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the study of large scale patterns and processes that characterize society as a whole
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theory
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a set of statements that explains why a phenomenon occurs
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empirical
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information that is based on observations, experiments, or experiences rather than on ideology, religion, or intuition
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social facts
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aspects of social life, external to the individual, that can be measured
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social solidarity
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social cohesiveness and harmony
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division of labor
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an interdependence of different tasks and occupations, characteristic of industrialized societies, that produce social unity and facilitate change
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capitalism
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an economic system in which the ownership of the means of production, like land, factories, large sums of money, and machines, is in private hands
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alienation
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the feeling of separation from one's group or society
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value free
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separating one's personal values, opinions, ideology, and beliefs from scientific research
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functionalism
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an approach that maintains that society is a complex system of interdependent parts that work together to ensure a society's survival
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dysfunctional
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social patterns that have a negative impact on a group of society
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manifest functions
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functions that are intended and recognized; they are present and clearly evident
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latent functions
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functions that are unintended and unrecognized; they are present but not immediately obvious
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conflict theory
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an approach that examines the ways in which groups disagree, struggle over power, and compete for scarce resources (such as property, wealth, and prestige)
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feminist theories
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approaches that try to explain the social, economic, and political position of women in society with a view of freeing women from traditionally oppressive expectations, constraints, roles, and behavior
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symbolic interactionism
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a micro level perspective that looks at individuals' everyday behavior through the communication of knowledge, ideas, beliefs, and attitudes
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interaction
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action in which people take each other into account in their own behavior
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social research
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research that examines human behavior
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scientific method
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the steps in the research process that include careful data collection, exact measurement, accurate recordings and analysis of the findings, thoughtful interpretation of results, and , when appropriate, a generalization of the findings to a larger group
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variable
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a characteristic that can change in value or magnitude under different conditions
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hypothesis
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a statement of a relationship between two or more variables that researchers want to test
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independent variable
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a characteristic that determines or has an effect on the dependent variable
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dependent variable
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the outcome, which may be affected by the independent variable
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reliability
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the consistency with which the same measure produces similar results time after time
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validity
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the degree to which a measure is accurate and really measures what it claims to measure
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deductive reasoning
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an inquiry process that begins with a theory, prediction, or general principle that is then tested through data collection
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inductive reasoning
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an inquiry process that begins with a specific observation, followed by data collection, a general conclusions, or theory construction
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population
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any well defined group of people (or things) about whom researchers want to know something
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sample
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a group of people (or things) that are representative of the population researchers wish to study
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probability sample
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a sample for which each person (or thing, such as an e-mail address) has an equal chance f being selected because the selection is random
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non probability sample
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a sample for which little or no attempt is made to get a representative cross section of the population
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qualitative research
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research that examines non numerical material and interprets it
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quantitative research
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research that focuses on a numerical analysis of people's responses or specific characteristics
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surveys
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a systematic method for collecting data from respondents, including questionnaires, face-to-face or telephone interviews, or a combination of these
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secondary analysis
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examination of data that have been collected by someone else
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field research
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data collection by systematically observing people in their natural surroundings
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content analysis
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a method of studying social behavior that systematically examines some form of communication
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experiment
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a carefully controlled artificial situation that allows researchers to manipulate variables and measure the effects
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experimental group
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the group of subjects in an experiment who are exposed to the independent variable
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control group
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the group of subjects in an experiment who are not exposed to the independent variable
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evaluation research
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research that uses all of the standard data collection techniques to assess the effectiveness of social programs in both the public and the private sectors
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culture
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the learned and shared behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and material objects that characterize a particular group or society
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society
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a group of people who have lived and worked together long enough to become a organized population and to think of themselves as a social unit
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material culture
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the tangible objects that members of a society make, use, and share
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nonmaterial culture
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the shared set of meanings that people in a society use to interpret and understand the world
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symbol
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anything that stands for something else and has a particular meaning for people who share a culture
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language
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a system of shared symbols that enables people to communicate with one another
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values
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the standards by which members of a particular culture define what is good or bad, moral or immoral, proper or improper, desirable or undesirable, beautiful or ugly
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norms
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a society's specific rules concerning right and wrong behavior
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folkways
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norms that members of a society (or group within a society) see as not being critical and that may be broken without sever punishment
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mores
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norms that members of a society consider very important because they maintain moral and ethical behavior
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laws
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formal rules about behavior that are defined by a political authority that has the power to punish violators
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sanctions
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rewards for good or appropriate behavior and/or penalties for bad or inappropriate bahvior
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cultural universals
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customs and practices that are common to all societies
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ideal culture
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the beliefs, values, and norms that people in a society say they hold or follow
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real culture
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the actual everyday behavior of people in a society
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ethnocentrism
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the belief that one's culture and way of life are superior to those of other groups
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cultural relativism
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the belief that no culture is better than another and that a culture should be judged by its own standards
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subculture
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a group of people whose distinctive ways of thinking, feeling, and acting differ somewhat from those of the larger society
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counterculture
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a group of people who deliberately oppose and consciously reject some of the basic beliefs, values, and norms of the dominant culture
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multiculturalism
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the coexistence of several cultures in the same geographic area, without one culture dominating another
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culture shock
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a sense of confusion, uncertainty, disorientation, or anxiety that accompanies exposure to an unfamiliar way of life or environment
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popular culture
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the beliefs, practices, activities, and products that are widely shared among a population in everyday life
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mass media
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forms of communication designed to reach large numbers of people
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cultural imperialism
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the cultural values and products of one society influence or dominate those of another
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cultural integration
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the consistency of various aspects of society that promotes order and stability
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cultural lag
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the gap when nonmaterial culture changes more slowly than material culture
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socialization
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the lifelong process of social interaction in which the individual acquires a social identity and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that are essential for effective participation in a society
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internalization
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the process of learning cultural behaviors and expectations so deeply that we assume they are correct and accept them without question
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sociobiology
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a theoretical approach that applies biological principles to explain the behavior of animals, including human beings
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social learning theories
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approaches whose central notion is that people learn new attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors through social interaction, especially during childhood
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self
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an awareness of one's social identity
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looking-glass self
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a self-image based on how we think others see us
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role taking
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learning to take the perspective of others
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significant others
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the people who are important in one's life, such as parents or other primary caregivers and siblings
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anticipatory socialization
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the process of learning how to perform a role one doesn't yet occupy
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generalized other
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people who don't have close ties to a child but who influence her or his internalization of society's norms and values
