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Prejudice

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A preconceived negative judgement of a group and its individual members.

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Stereotype

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A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information.

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Discrimination

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Unjustified negative behavior toward a group or its members.

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Racism (1)

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An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race.

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Racism (2)

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Institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race.

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Sexism (1)

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An individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex.

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Sexism (2)

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Institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex.

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Social dominance orientation

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A motivation to have one's group dominate other social groups.

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Ethnocentric

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Believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group, and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups.

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Authoritarian personality

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A personality that is disposed to favor obedience to authority and intolerance of out groups and those lower in status.

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Realistic group conflict theory

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The theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources.

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Social identity

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The \"we\" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to \"who am I?\" that comes from our group memberships.

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Ingroup

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\"Us\"--a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity.

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Outgroup

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\"Them\"--a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their ingroup.

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Ingroup bias

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The tendency to favor one's own group.

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Terror management

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People's self-protective emotional and cognitive responses (including adhering more strongly to their cultural world views and prejudices) when confronted with reminders of their morality.

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Outgroup homogeneity effect

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Perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. Thus, \"they are alike; we are diverse.\"

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Own-race bias

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The tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race. Also known as cross-race effect or other-race effect.

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Stigma consciousness

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A person's expectation of being victimized by prejudice or discrimination.

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Group-serving bias

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Explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behaviors by one's own group).

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Just-world phenomenon

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The tendency of people to believe that the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

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Subtyping

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Accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by thinking of them as \"exceptions to the rule.\"

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Subgrouping

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Accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group.

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Stereotype threat

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A disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one's reputation into one's self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects.

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Aggression

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Physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone.

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Hostile aggression

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Aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself. Also called affective aggression.

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Instrumental aggression

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Aggression that is a means to some other end.

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Instinctive behavior

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An innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species.

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Frustration-aggression theory

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The theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress.

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Frustration

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The blocking of goal-directed behavior.

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Displacement

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The redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially accepted target.

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Relative deprivation

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The perception that one is less well-off than others with whom one compares oneself.

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Social learning theory

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The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished.

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Catharsis

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Emotional release. The view that aggressive drive is reduced when one \"releases\" aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression.

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Prosocial behavior

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Positive, constructive, helpful social behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior.

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Social scripts

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Culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations.

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Need to belong

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A motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions.

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Proximity

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Geographical nearness. Powerfully predicts liking.

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Mere-exposure effect

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The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them.

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Matching phenomenon

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The tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a \"good match\" in attractiveness and other traits.

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Physical-attractiveness stereotype

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The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: what is beautiful is good.

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Complementarity

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The popular supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other.

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Ingratiation

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The use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor.

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Reward theory of attraction

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The theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events.

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Passionate love

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A state of intense longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in each other, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner;s love, and are disconsolate on losing it.

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Two-factor theory of emotion

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Arousal x its label = emotion.

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Companionate love

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The affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined.

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Secure attachment

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Attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy.

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Preoccupied attachment

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Attachments marked by a sense of one's own unworthiness and anxiety, ambivalence, and possessiveness.

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Dismissive attachment

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An avoidant relationship style marked by distrust of others.

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Fearful attachment

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An avoidant relationship style marked by fear of rejection.

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Equity

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A condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Note: equitable outcomes needn't always be equal outcomes.

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Self-disclosure

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Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

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Disclosure reciprocity

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The tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner.

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Altruism

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A motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests.

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Social-exchange theory

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The theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs.

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Egoism

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A motive (supposedly underlying all behavior) to increase one's own welfare. The opposite of altruism.

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Reciprocity norm

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An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

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Social capital

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The mutual support and cooperation enabled by a social network.

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Social-responsibility norm

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An expectation that people will help those needing help.

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Kin selection

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The idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance survival of mutually shared genes. Favoritism toward those who share our genes.

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Empathy

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The vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes.

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Bystander effect

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The finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders.

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Door-in-the-face technique

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A strategy for gaining a concession. After someone turns down a large request (the door in the face), the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request.

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Moral exclusion

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The perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness.

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Overjustification effect

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The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.

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Dismissing outgroup members' positive behaviors and attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions is known as

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group-serving bias.

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A consistent finding is that no matter how religious commitment is assessed,

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the very devout are less prejudiced.

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Around the world, people tend to prefer

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baby boys.

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When the cause of our frustration is intimidating or unknown, we often redirect our hostility. This phenomenon is known as

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displaced aggression.

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Since the Iraq war, Americans have developed negative views of

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Muslims.

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When others expect us to perform poorly and our anxiety causes us to confirm their belief, we have reacted to

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a stereotype threat.

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Sack and Elder (2000) found that more than 80 percent of both Whites and Blacks say race relations are generally good in their neighborhoods, but fewer than 60 percent see relations as generally good in the country as a whole. This is referred to as

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an ingroup bias

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Mr. Wong, a high school teacher, tells his class that he thinks boys tend to be less anxious and thus make better speeches than girls do. The girls in his class become apprehensive when preparing and giving speeches in his class. The girls are experiencing

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a stereotype threat

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Who is most likely to support a policy, such as tax cuts for the wealthy, that maintains hierarchies?

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a person high in social dominance

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Bob is high in social dominance. Which of the following majors is he UNLIKELY to choose in college?

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social work

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Which of the following statements is FALSE?

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The larger and more powerful the group, the less we attend to them and the more we stereotype.

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Which of the following statements is TRUE?

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Categorization can provide useful information about people with minimum effort.

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People high in social dominance orientation tend to support policies that _______ hierarchies and oppose policies that _______ hierarchies.

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maintain; undermine

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A motivation to have one's group be dominant over other social groups is what social psychologists call

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social dominance orientation

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A group of people who share a sense of belonging or a feeling of common identity is called an

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ingroup

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Linking good fortune with virtue and misfortune with moral failure enables fortunate people to feel pride and enables unfortunate people to avoid responsibility. This is an example of the _______ phenomenon.

answer

just-world

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The tendency for people to believe that individuals get what they deserve and deserve what they get is called the _______ phenomenon.

answer

just-world

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Kayla's grandparents emigrated from Europe. Kayla holds such a strong belief that her ethnic group is superior to all others that she could accurately be described as being

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ethnocentric

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Eagly's (1994) \"women-are-wonderful\" effect is an example of

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a favorable stereotype

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We are more prone to ingroup biases when our group is _______ and _______ relative to the outgroup.

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small; low in status

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The tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race is called the

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own-race bias

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John has just failed a chemistry test. He goes back to his apartment and criticizes his roommate's choice of music. What term best describes John's behavior?

answer

displaced aggression.

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All of the following statements are social sources of prejudice EXCEPT

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Social institutions and policies don't support prejudice.

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An institutional practice that subordinates people of a given sex is called

answer

sexism

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Describing positive behaviors by an ingroup member in terms of their general disposition, but describing the same behavior by an out group member as a specific isolated act, has been called the

answer

linguistic intergroup bias

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Watching violence on television gives people a harmless opportunity to vent their aggression.\" This statement is most clearly consistent with the _______ hypothesis.

answer

catharsis

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Repeated exposure to fictional scenes of a man overpowering and arousing a woman

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distorted people's perceptions of how women actually respond to sexual coercion.

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Violent crimes are more likely committed

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when the weather is hot

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Which one of the following does NOT predict increased aggression?

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non-alcohol use

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The _______ view of aggression is that aggressive drive is reduced when one \"releases\" aggressive energy.

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cathartic

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Which of the following has NOT been linked with aggressive behavior according to your text?

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an unexpected request

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Hennigan and her colleagues (1982) found that the larceny theft rate in U.S. cities jumped after television was first introduced. This result can be explained in terms of the

answer

thieves' sense of feeling deprived relative to wealthy television characters and those portrayed in advertisements.

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In contrast to Freud's view of aggression, Lorenz argued that aggression is

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adaptive rather than self-destructive

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Research confirms that groups

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can amplify aggressive tendencies

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In view of research on the pain-attack response, Berkowitz (1998)now believes that _______ is the basic trigger of hostile aggression.

answer

aversive stimulation

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The results of the Schachter and Singer (1962) experiment in which participants were injected with adrenaline prior to spending time with either a hostile or a euphoric person supports the idea that

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bodily arousal feeds one emotion or another depending on how we interpret the arousal.

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Surveys of adults and adolescents indicate that heavy viewers of TV violence

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are more fearful of being personally assaulted

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Which theory is most susceptible to the criticism that it tries to explain aggression by naming it?

answer

instinct theory

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The frustration-aggression theory is designed to explain

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hostile aggression

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Bushman (2002) invited angered participants to hit a punching bag while either ruminating about the person who angered them or thinking about becoming physically fit. A third group of participants did not hit the punching bag. When given a chance to administer loud blasts of noise to the person who angered them, people in _______ condition(s) felt angrier and were more aggressive.

answer

punching the bag plus rumination

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Juanita is upset with Rose, so during a social gathering she verbally cuts Rose down in front of others. Juanita's behavior is

answer

aggressive

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As part of therapy, a clinical psychologist encourages her patients to install a punching bag in their homes to release hostility. The therapist apparently believes in

answer

the catharsis hypothesis

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Positive, constructive, helpful social behavior is what psychologists refer to as

answer

prosocial behavior

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Fourteen-year-old Kevin frequently watches violent television programs. This will most likely lead him to

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become more fearful of being personally assaulted

question

A study of brain activity in the prefrontal cortex of murderers found

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last activity than normal

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Juveniles who grow up without a father

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are more violent

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Arthur did not work very hard on his last class essay assignment, so he was relieved at first to find that he had gotten a C. But when he learned that most of his classmates had gotten B's and A's, he felt unhappy and angry about his grade. Arthur's experience is best explained in terms of

answer

the relative deprivation principle

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What can we conclude about the relationship between heat and aggression?

answer

the correlations between heat and aggression do not represent a causal relationship

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According to the text, one reason that TV viewing affects behavior is that it

answer

evokes imitation

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Frustration grows when

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we are completely blocked in attaining our goal

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Of the following, which is the best example of instrumental aggression?

answer

A group of mercenaries, hired to kill the dictator of a small country, arrange to poison him.

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The correlation between parental (father) absence and violence holds

answer

race, status, and education

question

The study of neural influences on aggression has indicated that

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activating the amygdala can facilitate aggressive outbursts in humans

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The tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more after repeated exposure to them is referred to as

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mere exposure effect

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An example of implicit egotism is our tendency to

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like the familiar

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At a party, Ellie meets Rob and Blake. The three get involved in a philosophical discussion that lasts through the evening. By the end of the evening, Ellie has discovered that she and Blake see things eye-to-eye, whereas she and Rob see things differently. All else being equal, Ellie will probably like

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Blake better

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Psychologist Robert Sternberg views love as a triangle whose three sides include all BUT which of the following?

answer

attachment

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Ruth is quite attractive (a 4 on a 5-point scale), but Naomi is strikingly attractive (a 5 on a 5-point scale). Research suggests that if Ruth makes $35,000 a year on her job, Naomi will probably make _______ doing the same job.

answer

more money

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The contrast effect of feeling less attractive after viewing a super attractive person applies to our self-perceptions, especially for

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women

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Kalick (1977) had Harvard students indicate their impressions of eight women, judging from photos taken before or after cosmetic surgery, and found that

answer

post-surgery women were judged to be kinder and more likable

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The two-factor theory of emotion suggests that passionate love can be increased by

answer

physical arousal

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You feel obligated to vote in the next election, especially because you are usually the first one to complain about the incumbent president. However, you have not had the time to research the positions taken by the candidates. Social psychologists would confidently predict that you are likely to choose the candidate

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whose name you have heard most often

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Jen is more in love with Stan today than the day she married him. According to research on the relationship between love and perceived attractiveness,

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Jen probably finds Stan to be more attractive today than the day she married him.

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When people describe themselves in personal ads, women often offer _______ and seek _______.

answer

attractiveness; status

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Paula has just arrived as a new student on campus and does not know anyone. All else being equal, is she most likely to become friends with Joni who lives next door, with Kristy who lives two doors down, with Beth who lives three doors down, or with Heidi who lives in the room directly above hers?

answer

Joni

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Simpson, Campbell, and Berscheid (1986) suspected that the rising divorce rate over the past 20 to 30 years is at least partly due to the

answer

growing importance of romantic love in people's lives

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Those involved in relationships marked by long-term equity

answer

are unconcerned with short-term equity

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You are a regular contributor to an Internet chat room. One day the other participants seem to ignore every comment you make. Research suggests you will likely

answer

experience stress and a depressed mood

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\"Negative information carries more weight because being less usual, it grabs more attention.\" This statement is an example of the

answer

bad is stronger than good principle

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Which theory provides the best explanation for the effects of proximity, similarity, and attractiveness on liking?

answer

reward theory

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Bill and Susie's relationship becomes progressively more intimate as each engages in self-revelation in response to the other's self-disclosure. Their relationship is marked by the _______ effect.

answer

disclosure reciprocity

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Anticipatory liking—expecting that someone will be pleasant and compatible—increases the chance of

answer

forming a rewarding relationship

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Research has shown that we guess _______ people are happier, sexually warmer, more outgoing, and successful.

answer

beautiful

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In a study of whether or not mimicry increases rapport, van Baaren and his colleagues (2003) found that restaurant servers earned higher tips if they

answer

repeated the order back to the customer

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Gangestad and his colleagues (2004) found that during ovulation, women show a heightened preference for men with

answer

masculine features

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When volunteers in a research experiment spent time with strangers in self-disclosing conversations, they felt

answer

remarkably close with their partners

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In Rubin's research, \"strong-love\" couples differed from \"weak-love\" couples in that they

answer

gazed more into each other's eyes

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When comparing ourselves and others to models and \"beautiful\" people in the media, we

answer

devalue our potential mates and ourselves

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According to the two-factor theory of emotion, being aroused by _______ should intensify passionate feelings.

answer

any source

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According to the text, which characteristic is NOT true of people who usually stay married?

answer

they co-habited or became pregnant before marriage

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When we have no strong feelings about a product or person ______ increases sales and votes.

answer

repetition

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The tendency for opposites to mate or marry

answer

has never been reliably demonstrated

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If you are new in the office and want to make new friends, your best bet is to get a desk

answer

near where people hang out

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The advice to continue having romantic dinners, trips to the theatre, and vacations once married would most probably be offered by the

answer

reward theory of attraction

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According to the text, the relationship between the extent to which we are in love with someone and how physically attractive we find that person to be is

answer

positive

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Evolutionary psychology contends that the essence of life is

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gene survival

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From an evolutionary perspective, it would be most difficult to explain why

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Ruth risked her life to save a stranger from being murdered

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Latané and Darley (1968) had university students complete questionnaires in a small room, and then had smoke pour into the room from a wall vent. Students who were working _______ tended to notice the smoke in _______.

answer

alone; less than five seconds

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Which of the following specifically predicts that we will be more altruistic towards our relatives than towards close friends?

answer

evolutionary psychology

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Altruism is to _______ as egoism is to _______.

answer

another's welfare; one's own welfare

question

The tendency to overestimate others' ability to \"read\" our internal states is called the illusion of

answer

transparency

question

Studies of the effects of mood on helping suggest that adults who feel _______ are more likely than those in a neutral control condition to help.

answer

guilty

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Mr. Lemming's neighbors mowed his lawn, but he was too sick and weak to reciprocate. We can predict that Mr. Lemming may feel

answer

demeaned because he cannot reciprocate

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The fact that a person is less likely to help in an emergency when other people are present is called

answer

the bystander effect

Social Psychology Exam #3 (9-12).

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