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Social Psychology

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The scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.

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Social Neuroscience

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An integration of biological and social perspectives that explores the neural and psychological bases of social and emotional behaviors.

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Culture

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The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

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Social Representations

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Social shared beliefs- widely held ideas and values, including our assumptions and cultural ideologies. Our social representations help us make sense of the world.

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Hindsight bias

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The tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out. Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.

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Theory

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An Integrated set of principles that explain and predict obserced events.

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Hypothesis

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A testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events.

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Field Research

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Research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory.

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Correlational Research

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The study of the naturally occuring relationships amoung variables.

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Experimental research

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Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant).

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Random Sample

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Survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion.

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Framing

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The way a question or an issue is posed; framing can influence people's decisions and expressed opinions.

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Independent Variable

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The experimental factor that a researcher manipulates.

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Dependent Variable

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The variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the independent variable.

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Random Assignment

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The process assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition.

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Mundance realism

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Degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations.

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Experimental realism

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Degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants.

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Deception

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In research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the study's methods and purposes.

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Demand Characteristics

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Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected.

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Informed Consent

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An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

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Debreifing

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In social psychology, the postexperimental explanation of a study to its participants. Debriefing usually discloses any deception and often requires participants regarding their understandings and feelings.

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Spotlight Effect

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The belief that others are paying more attention to one's appearance and behavior than they really are.

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Illustion of transparency

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The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others.

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Self- concept

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A person's ansers to the question, " Who am I?"

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Self-schema

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Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information

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Possible selves

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Images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future.

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Social Comparison

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Evalutating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself with others.

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Individualism

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The concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

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Collectivism

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Giving priority to the goals of one's groups and definging one's identity accordingly.

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interdepedent self

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Constructing one's identity in relation to others.

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Planning Fallacy

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The tendency to under estimate how long it will take to complete a task.

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Impact Bias

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Overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events.

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Immune neglect

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The human tendency to underestimate the speed and strength of the "psychological immune system," which enables emtional recovery and resilience after bad things happen.

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dual attitudes

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Differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes toward the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may change the education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habits.

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Self-esteem

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A person's overall self- evaluation or sense of self-worth.

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Self-efficacy

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A sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, which is one's sense of self worth. A bombardier might feel high self-efficacy and low self-esteem.

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Locus of control

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The extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces.

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Learned Helplessness

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The sense of hepelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal percieves no control over repeated bad events.

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Self-serving bias

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The tendency to percieve oneself favorably.

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Self-serving attributions

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A form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to oneself and negative outcomes to other factors.

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Defense pessimism

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The adaptive value of anticipating problems and hardnessing one's anxiety to motivate effectice action.

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False consensus effect

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Th tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors.

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False uniqueness effect

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The tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desiable or successful behaviors.

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Group-serving bias

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Explaning away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group).

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Self-handicapping

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Protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure.

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Self- presentation

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The act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impresson that corresponds to one's ideals.

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Self-monitoring

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Being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression.

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Priming

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Activating particular associations in memory.

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Belief perserverance

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Persistence of one's initial conceptions, as when the basis for ones belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives.

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Misinformation effect

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Incorporating " misinformation" into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and recieving misleading information.

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Controlled processing

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"Explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflecting and cconscious.

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Automatic processing

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"Implicit" thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness, roughly corresponds to "intuition."

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Overconfidence

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The tendencu to be more confidnet that correct-- to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs.

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Confirmation bias

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A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions.

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Heuristic

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A thinking strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments.

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Representativeness

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The tendency to presume, sometimes despide contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member.

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Availability heuristic

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A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind we persume it to be commonplace.

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Countefactual thinking

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Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't.

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Illusory correlation

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Perception of a relationship where none exisits, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exisits.

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Illusion of control

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Perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are.

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regression toward the average

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The statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average.

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Misattribution

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Mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source.

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Attribution theory

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The theory of how people explain others' behavior- for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations.

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Dispositional attribution

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Attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits.

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Situational attribution

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Attributing behavior to the environment.

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Spontaneous trait inference

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An effortless, automatic interference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior.

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Fundamental attribution error

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The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior.

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Self- awareness

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A self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispostions.

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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A belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

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Behavioral confimation

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A type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expecations lead them to behave in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations.

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Attitude

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A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone (often rooted in one's beliefs, and exhibited in one's feelings and intended behavior).

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Role

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A set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave.

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Foot- in- the- door phenomenon

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The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with larger request.

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Low-ball technique

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a tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it.

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cognitive dissonance

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Tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions. For example, dissonance may occur when we realize that we have, with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another.

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Insufficient justification

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Reduction of dissonance by interanllu justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient."

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Self-perception theory

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The theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs.

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Overjustification effect

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The effect of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.

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Self-Affirmation theory

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A theory that (a) people often experience a self-image threat, after engaging in an undesirable behavior; and (b) they can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self. Threaten people's self-concept in one domain, and they will compensate either by refocusing or by doing good deeds in some other domain.

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Internal Attribution

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Blaming a factor, agent, or force within one's control for causing an event.

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External Attribution

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Blaming an outside factor as the cause of an event.

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Solomon Ash.

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He became famous in the 1950s, following experiments which showed that social pressure can make a person say something that is obviously incorrect.

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Stanly Milgram

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Was influenced by the events of the Nazi Holocaust to carry out an experiment that would demonstrate the relationship between obedience and authority. Prior to the obedience experiment, He conducted the small-world experiment (the source of the six degrees of separation concept) as part of his dissertation while at Harvard.

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William McDougal

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He was particularly important in the development of the theory of instinct and of social psychology in the English-speaking world.

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Lee Ross

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An influential social psychologist who has studied attribution theory, attributional biases, decision making and conflict resolution. He is known for his investigations of the fundamental attribution error, and for identifications and analyses of such psychological phenomena as attitude polarization, reactive devaluation, belief perseverance, the false consensus effect, naive realism, and the hostile media effect.

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Fritz Heider

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he published The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, which expanded upon his creation of balance theory and marked the starting point of attribution theory.

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Leon Festinger

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Responsible for the development of the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Social comparison theory, and the discovery of the role of propinquity in the formation of social ties as well as other contributions to the study of social networks. He was also responsible for Social Comparison Theory, which examines how people evaluate their own opinions and desires by comparing themselves with others, and how groups exert pressures on individuals to conform with group norms and goals

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