question

Collective

answer

People engaged in common activities but having minimal direct interaction.

question

Group

answer

Two or more persons perceived as related because of their interactions, membership in the same social category, or common fate.

question

Social facilitation

answer

A process whereby the presence of others enhances performance on easy tasks but impairs performance on difficult tasks.

question

Mere presence theory

answer

The proposition that the mere presence of others is sufficient to produce social facilitation effects.

question

Social loafing

answer

A group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks where contributions are pooled.

question

Ingham rope-pulling study

answer

Participants were led to think that they were pulling with a bunch of other participants. In another condition , the participants were informed that they were pulling alone (which, in fact, they were). The researcher told the participants to pull as hard as they could. Ingham and colleagues were able to measure exactly how hard each individual participant pulled, and they observed that the participants pulled almost 20 percent harder when they though they were pulling alone than when they though they were pulling with others.

question

Factors that diminish social loafing

answer

Social loafing is less likely to occur when one of the following conditions is present: 1. People believe that their own performance can be identified and thus evaluated, by themselves or others. 2. The task is important or meaningful to those performing it. 3. People believe that their own efforts are necessary for a successful outcome. 4. The group expects to be punished for poor performance. 5. The group is small. 6. The group is cohesive- that is, membership in the group is valuable and important to the members, and the individuals like each other.

question

Collective effort model

answer

The theory that individuals will exert effort on a collective task to the degree that they think their individual efforts will be important, relevant, and meaningful for achieving outcomes that they value.

question

Social compensation

answer

If the outcome is important to individual members of the group, and if they believe that they can help achieve the desired outcome, then these individuals are likely to engage in social compensation, specifically, by increasing their efforts on collective tasks to try to compensate for the anticipated social loafing or poor performance of other group members.

question

Sucker effect

answer

If the outcome is not personally important to individual members, if they believe that their contribution won't affect the outcome very much, or if they feel they are unable to compensate for the anticipated social loafing of other member, then they are likely to exert less effort.

question

Deindividuation

answer

The loss of a person's sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior.

question

Why people join groups

answer

1. Innate need to belong to groups 2. Desire to feel protected against threat and uncertainty in everyday life. 3. In order to accomplish things that they cannot accomplish as individuals. 4. Social status and identity that they offer 5. They like the members and want to have the opportunity to interact with them.

question

Group development stages

answer

Forming: members orient themselves, are polite and explanatory Storming: members try to influence group and its direction... can lead to conflict, hostility, and excitement Norming: reconcile conflicts and develop common purpose and norms Performing: members perform their own tasks to achieve goals Adjourning: members disengage when benefits no longer outweigh costs

question

Components of groups (roles, norms, cohesiveness)

answer

1. Roles: formal or informal; instrumental (helps achieve tasks) or expressive (provides emotional support). 2. Norms: rules of conduct; formal or informal. 3. Cohesiveness: affected by commitment to task, attraction to members, group pride, number of interactions, threats from inside or out.

question

Group polarization

answer

The exaggeration through group discussion of initial tendencies in the thinking of group members.

question

Groupthink

answer

A group decision-making style characterized by an excessive tendency among group members to seek concurrence.

question

Contributing factors of groupthink

answer

1. Highly cohesive groups (disagreeing gets you shunned) 2. Group structure (members are similar, isolated, strong leader, lack decision-making procedures) 3. Stressful situations (time, high-stakes)

question

Effects of cohesiveness

answer

If the norms are positive and consistent with an organization's goals, then high cohesiveness should improve performance. If a group has established negative, counterproductive, norms, then high cohesiveness should lead to poor group performance. If the group is cohesive, you don't want to be the one that disagrees with everyone. If your groups is cohesive and close, then members might feel more comfortable sharing their deviant opinions. There might also be more respect in the group, so the others are more likely to listen.

question

How to avoid the negative aspects of groupthink

answer

1. To avoid isolation, groups should consult widely with outsiders. 2. To reduce conformity pressures, leaders should explicitly encourage criticism and not take a strong stand early in the group discussion. 3. To establish a strong norm of critical review, subgroups should separately discuss the same issue, a member should be assigned to play devil's advocate and question all decisions and ideas, and a "second chance" meeting should be held to reconsider the group decision before taking action.

question

Additive tasks

answer

Task where the product is the sum of all members' contributions. Group total is more than a person could come up with alone. Examples: giving to charity, cheering in a crowd

question

Conjunctive tasks

answer

Task where the product determined by individual with poorest performance. Group total worse than a person could do alone. Example: mountain climbing teams

question

Disjunctive tasks

answer

Task where the product is potentially determined by individual with best performance. Group total potentially better than a person could do alone - the more people, the better the chance of a "breakthrough." Example: problem solving

question

Process loss

answer

The reduction in group performance due to obstacles created by group processes, such as problems of coordination and motivation.

question

Brainstorming (most effective forms)

answer

A number of people brainstorming individually produce more and higher-quality ideas than people brainstorming together.

question

Entrapment

answer

The condition in which commitments to a failing course of action are increased to justify investments already made.

question

Social dilemma

answer

A situation in which a self-interested choice by everyone creates the worst outcome for everyone.

question

Prisoner's dilemma

answer

A type of dilemma in which one party must make either cooperative or competitive moves in relation to another party; typically designed in such a way that competitive moves are more beneficial to either side, but if both sides make competitive moves, they are both worse off then if they both cooperated.

question

Tit-for-tat

answer

A reciprocal strategy in which cooperation by one elicits cooperation by the other, while competition by one provokes competition by the other.

question

Resource dilemmas

answer

Social dilemmas concerning how two or more people share a limited resource.

question

GRIT- Graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension-reduction

answer

A strategy for unilateral, persistent efforts to establish trust and cooperation between opposing parties.

question

Integrative agreement

answer

A negotiated resolution to a conflict in which all parties obtain outcomes that are superior to what they would have obtained from an equal division of the contested resources.

question

Need for affiliation

answer

The desire to establish and maintain many rewarding interpersonal relationships.

question

Link between fear and affiliation

answer

Stanley Schachter theorized that external threat triggers fear and motivates us to affiliate- particularly with others who face a similar threat.

question

Schachter shock study

answer

In a laboratory experiment that demonstrated the link between fear and affiliation, Schachter found that people who were expecting to receive painful electric shocks chose to wait with other nervous participants rather than alone.

question

Causes of shyness

answer

1. Inborn personality trait 2. Learned reaction to failed interactions with others

question

Qualities of shy people

answer

1. Evaluate themselves negatively 2. Expect to fail in social encounters and blame themselves when they do 3. Conform out of fear of rejection 4. Go into self-imposed isolation

question

Causes and susceptible age groups of loneliness

answer

18-30 year olds Loneliness occurs at times of transition, which occurs most at these ages.

question

Predictors of relationships (proximity and exposure)

answer

Proximity - people who are in the same place at the same time Exposure - the more people see something, the more they like it

question

Four studies showing power of physical attractiveness

answer

1. Teachers given info and pic of students, rated attractive kids as smarter and more likely to do well when all other info was the same. 2. Attractive people able to get more petition signatures on college campus. 3. Judges set lower bail and smaller fines for attractive people. 4. Attractive people make more money (across US and Canada) than comparable less-attractive others.

question

What-is-beautiful-is-good stereotype

answer

The belief that physically attractive individuals also possess desirable personality characteristics.

question

Attractiveness and insecurity

answer

1. Often can't tell if positive feedback is the result of their work or just their looks 2. Feel pressure to maintain appearance, which can lead to detrimental behavior

question

Influencers of attraction (similarity, liking, hard to get)

answer

1. Similarity - we are more likely to be attracted to those demographically similar to us as well as those who hold similar attitudes. 2. Liking - We prefer relationships that are psychologically balanced. Balance exists when there's reciprocity: a mutual exchange between what we give and receive - for example, liking those who like us 3. Being hard to get - We actually prefer people who are moderately selective more than those who are non selective or too selective. Wanting what we think we can't or shouldn't have

question

Evolutionary roots of mate selection

answer

Women: They are biologically limited in the number of offspring they can produce. More likely to seek out a mate who is able and willing to provide for that offspring. More threatened by emotional infidelity Prefer older men Men: To ensure the offspring is theirs. More threatened by sexual infidelity Also, seek out best chance at reproduction. Seek youth and signs of fertility and health

question

Social exchange theory

answer

A perspective that views people as motivated to maximize benefits and minimize costs in their relationships with others.

question

Investment

answer

1. Something a person puts into a relationship that they can't recover 2. Higher investment equals higher likelihood of staying in a relationship

question

Equity theory

answer

The theory that people are most satisfied with a relationship when the ratio between benefits and contributions is similar for both partners.

question

Exchange relationships

answer

A relationship in which the participants expect and desire strict reciprocity in their interactions.

question

communal relationships

answer

A relationship in which the participants expect and desire mutual responsiveness to each other's needs.

question

Triangular theory of love

answer

A theory proposing that love has three basic components- intimacy, passion, and commitment- which can be combined to produce eight subtypes.

question

Passionate love

answer

Romantic love characterized by high arousal, intense attraction, and fear of rejection.

question

Companionate love

answer

A secure, trusting, stable partnership.

question

Excitation transfer

answer

The process whereby arousal caused by one stimulus is added to arousal from a second stimulus and the combined arousal is attributed to the second stimulus.

question

Self-disclosure

answer

Revelations about the self that a person makes to others.

question

Jealousy: triggers and effects

answer

The reaction to a perceived threat to a relationship. 1. Relationship is new 2. Person is dependent on relationship 3. Person is insecure 4. Person feels inequitably treated by partner

question

Kurdek's longitudinal marriage study

answer

Showed a decrease in ratings of marital quality over 10 years. Sharp periods of decline found in 1st and 8th years.

question

Negative affect reciprocity

answer

A tit-for-tat cycle of expression of negative feelings, verbal and nonverbal.

question

Reducing conflict in relationships

answer

1. Increase rewarding behavior in other aspects of relationship - positives need to balance out negatives. 2. Understand the other's point of view.

question

Relationship-enhancing attributions

answer

1. Assuming that when it comes to your partner: negative behaviors are situational, temporary, and limited in scope positive behaviors are inherent, permanent, and generalizable 2. These attributions are found in happy couples. 3. Unhappy couples tend to make distress-maintaining attributions, which are the opposite.

Social Psychology Chapter 8-9 – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards