Sex generalisations and stereotypes Essay Example

relationships with men rather than vice versa. I intend to examine if this research, conducted in 1981, is still relevant in current newspapers and magazines. This assignment's aim is to discover some advancements towards gender equality in the media while exposing continued prejudice against women through language traits such as marked terms, emotive language, and sexist generalizations.

For my English Language Coursework Investigation Methodology, I had to gather data that represented the current portrayal of women in the media. To achieve this, I collected newspapers and magazines with varied audience types and purposes while keeping their classification in mind. These included The Guardian, which has an educated and middle-class readership, as well as The Sun, aimed at the working-class population. Also, I considered "teen magazines," which mostly cater to young females but didn't analyze them extensively due to the simplistic language used restricting the extent of analysis.

The articles I gathered focused on women, particularly celebrities like Mel B of the Spice Girls and Cheryl, the wife and manager of Michael Barrymore, who were both featured in tabloid stories. I also examined journalism that tackled "female issues" such as lesbianism and single-motherhood. The linguistic styles in these articles reflected the content and opinions expressed. Although there have been extensive studies on language variation based on gender, such as Trudgill's analysis of differences in speech between men and women (1972) and Lakoff's controversial study in 1975, which suggested that "women use language to collude in their own subordination," there is little current research on my topic. Trager's observation in 1931 on sex-specific language, for instance, notes that "one" is the only impersonal pronoun in English, which is considered

formal or aristocratic in Britain and has limited use. Additionally, Titcomb (1955) looked into the use of pronouns in the popular press, while Archer conducted research on this aspect in 1975.

Summarizing previous research, Hole and Levine's "The Politics of Language" and Gornick and Moran's "Women in Sexist Society: Studies in Power and Powerlessness" from 1971 discuss language as a means of attaining or designating power, particularly in media representation. This highlights the complexity of language and gender, which influenced my decision to focus on the representation of women in media for my project. In addition to reviewing existing literature, I also conducted online research, including a feminist website that provided a comprehensive overview of language and gender variation studies, primarily related to speech. Overall, this background research was valuable and informative for my project.

Angela Goddard, an expert on the language-gender relationship, published 'Language and Gender' (2000), which examines written language in newspapers and magazines. This publication helped me with background information and research, but it only made general references to gender bias in the media. Thus, I decided to investigate if those observations could be specifically applied to media representations of women. My analysis of collected data shows that newspapers frequently use marked terms, including suffixes like 'ess' and 'ette,' when referring to women (e.g., 'actress,' 'usherette'), which has various implications and intentions.

Although commonly accepted in English, using suffixes to modify female terms suggests a deviation from the male "default" form. This implies that the female forms have a lower status and are seen as imitations of the male form, without the elevated status of their referents. For instance, adding "ette" to descriptive terms

like "usherette" implies diminishment or imitation, similar to "suedette," used to describe fake suede. The data also indicates lexical asymmetry, such as "heroine," which departs from the male term "hero" and implies subordination of women. Typically used in a limited context, like romance novels or television dramas, the term "heroine" illustrates how women are often portrayed with diminished status.

"Hero" has wide applicability to men, which may reflect the power male figures hold in a patriarchal society. The term "seductress" differs from the archaic "seducer," with colloquial phrases like "ladies man" commonly referencing men instead. Language's tendency to specify genders was studied by Dike (1937) and Withington (1937) in the early 20th century, and continues today. While some terms like "authoress" have become largely irrelevant, gendered terminology like "female novelist" still persists, indicating an assumption that high-status roles usually belong to men.

The usage of marked terms in my data, such as "gay women" and "teenage mother," suggests a departure from an unstated normative situation. For instance, the term "lone mother" connotes disapproval and implies that marriage or a long-term relationship is ideal. In The Guardian's article "Mother Care," this language feature is used frequently to express the author's disapproval of "unmarried mothers" without explicitly articulating sexist or stereotypical views. This tactic avoids outdated or offensive language. The use of marked terms like "successful female artist," "female pop star," and "female celebrity" implies deviation from traditional female roles and imitation of the male default form. Although these terms do not have overt negative connotations, they indicate a gender bias illustrated through language.

Analyzing the representation of women in the media involves recognizing the subtle but

impactful use of marked terms. One important factor is gender-biased emotive language that can be found in descriptions with connotative meanings, as seen in my data, such as "wildcat," "desperate," "sex slave," and "wealthy widow." This language feature has been extensively studied, including Strodtbeck and Mann's 1956 investigation into how language influences perception of individuals and Ackerman's (1962) analysis of the connotative difference between a "lady" and a "woman."

In 1973, Lakoff also had an interest in the expressive use of language. The Sun's article describing Cheryl Barrymore as "desperate" and "sobbing" carries emotional connotations of weakness and emotional instability. This implies the subordination of women, which strengthens the stereotype of women as weak and helpless. Such language may be used to align with the reader's social expectations and to comment on traditional gender roles and characteristics.

The use of emotive language is prevalent in portraying women as sexually aggressive or predatory. An example is the Sunday People's article that describes Mel B as a "horny devil," "kinky," and "money-grabbing," all of which have negative connotations. The verbs "dragged" and "betrayed" also imply a negative image, and the term "lured," often used in hunting, has a predatory connotation when applied to Mel. Moreover, Mylene is described as a "wildcat" who "snarled" in the News of the World's article, implying irrational, fierce behavior that further supports the stereotype of women as voracious. The Sun's labelling of Britney as "forward and aggressive" also conveys the same message.

Emotive language serves multiple purposes, including masking implicit descriptions and revealing current views. It is also used to persuade readers to adopt the author's opinions. One example of this

can be seen in 'Mother Care,' where the author condemns teenage pregnancy and sexual activity as sinful with strong connotations of evil and crime. This language choice may invoke biblical teachings and reinforce outdated gender roles portrayed in religious documents.

Within the article, a woman is characterized as "a teenage pregnancy statistic at 17," suggesting disapproval. The use of the term "statistic" dehumanizes and diminishes the individual, implying moral judgement from the author. Additionally, the statement that "many grandmothers are too busy with full-time jobs to offer the back-up once expected of them," may be interpreted as undermining the role of women. The juxtaposition of the words "grandmother" and "busy" conveys a negative attitude towards working women, and the term "expected" suggests outdated gender roles. Upon analysis of the data, it is found that the News of the World's reference to "former choirboy Noel" is a similar example, using the term "choirboy" to evoke empathy for him due to its connotations of innocence and vulnerability, particularly in relation to an argument within the article.

Emotive language has a significant impact on the portrayal of women in the media. Women are often described based on their appearance, which is a popular language feature. This contrasts with how men are described in terms of career or achievement. Miller and Swift investigated this non-parallel treatment in 1981, and despite changing attitudes towards gender roles, it still persists today. The most common feature found in the data is the description of women in terms of appearance. Examples of this type of language can be seen in The Mirror's description of Sarah Parish, who they said looked "fantastic" in tight black trousers

and a tailored white shirt that accentuated her svelte figure.

Although the article ostensibly discusses Sarah's breakup with Hugo Speer and her acting career, a significant portion of it comprises unnecessary physical descriptions. This highlights the objectification of women in the media, defining them solely by their appearance. This perpetuates the idea that women are less dynamic and career-driven than men and are more decorative in society. Similar descriptions can be found in articles about Victoria Beckham and Jodie Marsh, where their physical appearance is emphasized over their careers and personalities. Such descriptions detract from women's achievements and support the 'beauty myth' that implies women must attain a certain appearance to gain attention.

The shortening of "cardigan" into "cardie" is colloquially used and reflects the lack of seriousness given to women in the media. Women are often portrayed in articles related to fashion and gossip, reducing their representation to mere physical appearances. Although these descriptions may appeal to readers with an interest in fashion, they reinforce popular stereotypes and objectify women. Examples of this include descriptions such as "luscious Rachel Sterling," "bleach-blonde Meg Ryan," "blonde Gwen," and "sexy babe." Even when women's careers are mentioned, their physical appearance is given unnecessary attention and takes away from the main focus of the article.

A perfect illustration of the media's focus on physical appearance when portraying women is evident in The News of The World article on Cheryl Barrymore. The article refers to her friend as "blonde Tracey" and later as "Beautician Tracey," with the former description being irrelevant to the article's content. This order of descriptions signifies the media's emphasis on physical appearance when presenting women, and even Tracey's

career connotes derogatory stereotypes. The Metro also provides a similar example, labelling women as "the most beautiful women" first before referring to them as "A-list actresses" with their femininity emphasized by the suffix. However, there are exceptions such as the Sunday People's mention of "blond hunk Fjolnir Thorgeirsson," who is later identified as a "snooker ace." Although most professions mentioned usually connote beauty, the context of the article clarifies why this language feature was employed, which is typically used for describing women.

The author objectifies the subject of the article based on his sexual relationship with Mel B, portraying him in a stereotypical ideal of male beauty. Johnny Knoxville is also described in a similar way, as trendy and attractive, reflecting his popularity among the audience. This objectification of men in media highlights the changing representation of genders, with terms like "arm-candy" and "himbo" being applied in magazines to describe men. Women are often described with their age, similar to the description of physical appearance. The conflict between the subject's attractiveness and Mel B's portrayal as a "money-grabbing" betrayer maintains audience interest.

The media tends to describe women with their age, such as "Mel, 27," and "Cheryl, 52," while men are typically only mentioned with their age if it is viewed positively in terms of youth or success. The reason for this difference may be due to societal expectations that women must adhere to a 'beauty ideal' of appearing young and thus media evaluates if they are meeting this ideal or not. Men are typically only evaluated in a similar context, such as with Pierce Brosnan who is often praised for "looking good for his age."

Another

common feature used in media representation is to describe women based on their relationship to men, implying that women hold a lower status in society compared to men. This is a non-parallel treatment that was studied by Miller and Swift in 1981 and is often applied to women but not men. For instance, Jennifer Aniston, a renowned actress, is referred to as "Brad's missus," and Cheryl Barrymore is known as "Barrymore's wife." Similarly, Jodie Marsh is depicted in the News of the World article as the "daughter of a millionaire scaffolding contractor," elevating her status to that of her father but suggesting inferiority compared to her male relative. Other examples include Drew Barrymore, who is described as "with boyfriend Fabrizio Moretti from The Strokes," and Danni Minogue, whose exes include former Bros bassist Craig Logan and Formula One star Jacques Villeneuve.

Despite being accomplished public figures, these women are still characterized based on their association with men, thereby reinforcing an antiquated perspective of women's positions in society. The evident lack of consistency highlights the non-equivalent treatment as the females are solely described in relation to males, while the males are identified by their professions and accomplishments, demonstrating how this linguistic characteristic greatly influences the way women are portrayed in the media.