Psychology Test Chap. 1/2 – Flashcards
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empiricism
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the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
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structuralism
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an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind
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introspection
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looking inward
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functionalism
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a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish
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experimental psychology
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the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.
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behaviorism
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the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
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humanistic psychology
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historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth.
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cognitive neuroscience
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the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).
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psychology
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the science of behavior and mental processes
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behavior
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anything an organism does; any action we can observe and record
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mental processes
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the internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior; sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings.
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nature- nurture issue
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the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.
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natural selection
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the principle that, among he range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
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levels of analysis
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the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social- cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
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biophysical approach
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an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social- cultural levels of analysis
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biological psychology
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a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes
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evolutionary psychology
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the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection
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psychodynamic psychology
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a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders.
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behavioral psychology
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the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning
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cognitive psychology
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the scientific study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
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psychometrics
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the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
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basic research
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pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
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developmental psychology
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the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.
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educational psychology
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the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
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personality psychology
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the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
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social psychology
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the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
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applied research
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scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
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industrial- organizational (I/O) psychology
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the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in workplaces.
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human factors psychology
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the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments
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counseling psychology
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a branch of psych that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well- being
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clinical psychology
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a branch of psych that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
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psychiatry
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a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practice by physicians who often provide medical (for example drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
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hindsight bias
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the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen i. (AKA the I- knew- it- all- along phenomenon)
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critical thinking
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thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
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theory
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an explanation using an integrated set of principle that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
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hypothesis
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a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
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operational definition
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a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
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replication
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repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
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case study
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an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
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survey
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a technique for ascertaining the self- reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
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population
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all the cases in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population)
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random sample
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a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
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naturalistic observation
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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
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correlation
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a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other
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correlation coefficient
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a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
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scatterplot
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a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)
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illusory correlation
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the perception of a relationship where none exits
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experiment
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a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
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random assignment
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assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
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double- blind procedure
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an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug- evaluation studies.
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placebo effect
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experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
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experimental group
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in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
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control group
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in an experiment, the group that is NOT exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
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independent variable
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the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
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confounding variable
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a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment
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dependent variable
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the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
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mode
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the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
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mean
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the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
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median
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the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
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range
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the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution
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standard deviation
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a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
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normal curve
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(normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell- shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and fewer and fewer near the extremes
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statistical significance
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a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
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culture
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the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
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informed consent
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an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
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debriefing
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the post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
