Psychology test 6, 11-13 – Flashcards
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Classical conditioning and parts
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A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response Parts: neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response
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Neutral stimulus
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A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not bring about the response of interest Unconditioned = unlearned
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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without being learned
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Unconditioned response (UCR)
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A response that is natural and needs no training
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Conditioned stimulus (CS)
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A once- neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus
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Conditioned response (CR)
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A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus
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Ivan Pavlov
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Classical conditioning A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus (cs) comes to bring about a response (cr) after being paired with a stimulus ( ucs) that naturally brings about that response
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Extinction
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Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and disappears The pairing of UCS and CS has ended
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Spontaneous recovery
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Reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning
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Stimulus generalization
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Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus ( a lot of areas ) Albert generalized his fear to bunnies, white coats, and Santa clause
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Stimulus discrimination
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Ability to differentiate between stimuli Pavlov's dogs would not salivate if a harmonica played
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Operant conditioning and parts
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Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depends on its favorable or unfavorable consequences Parts: reinforcement, positive reinforcers, negative reinforcers, positive punishment, negative punishment, punishment, reinforcer
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Reinforcement
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Process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
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Reinforcer
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Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
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Positive reinforcers
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Pleasant stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response
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Negative reinforcers
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Unpleasant stimulus removal that leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated
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Punishment
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Stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior response will occur again
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Positive punishment
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Addition of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood that a response will occur again
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Negative punishment
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Removal of something pleasant to decrease the likelihood that a response will occur again
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Thorndike's law of effect
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Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated Cat in cage example
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B.F. Skinner
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Skinner boxes were used to alter the environment and watch behavior He is credited with inspiring a whole generation of psychologists studying operant conditioning
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Behavior modification
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A formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
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Latent learning
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New behavior is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it Learning occurs without reinforcement Cognitive map- mental representation of spatial locations and directions
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Sex
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Sexual anatomy and sexual behavior Biological
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Sexism
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Negative attitudes and behavior toward a person that are based on that person's gender
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Gender
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The perception of being male or female
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Gender roles
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Set of expectations indicating what is appropriate behavior for men and women
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Gender schema
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A mental framework that organizes and guides a child's understanding of information relevant to gender
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Socialization
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Individuals learn the rules and norms of appropriate behavior
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Rape
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Act by which one person forces another person to submit to sexual activity
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Transsexuals
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People who believe they were born with the body of the other gender/ sex
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Phases of sexual response
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Excitement phase Plateau phase, orgasm Resolution stage Refractory period
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Transgenderism
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Broad category of people who view themselves as a third gender, transsexuals ( born in body of the other gender/ sex, or transvestites dress in clothes of the other gender
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Intersex
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Someone who is born with an a typical combination of sexual organs or chromosomal or gene patterns
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Eregenous zones
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Areas of the body that are particularly sensitive to touch because of the presence of an unusually rich array of nerve receptors
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Sti's
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Disease acquired through sexual contact Chlamydia Genital herpes Trichomoniasis Gonorrhea Syphilis Genital warts Aids
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Sexual problems/ difficulties
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Erectile dysfunction: male's inability to achieve or maintain an erection Premature ejaculation: male's inability to delay orgasm Inhibited ejaculation: male's inability to ejaculation when he wants to Anorgasmia: female's lack of orgasm Primary orgasmic dysfunction ( never had an orgasm) Secondary orgasmic dysfunction ( has before, but now can't at all or only under certain conditions ) Inhibited sexual desire: sexual dysfunction in which the motivation for sexual activity is restrained
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Developmental research techniques
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Cross- sectional research: compares people of different ages at the same point in time Longitudinal research: investigates behavior as participants age change in behavior over time Sequential research : combines cross- sectional and longitudinal approaches by taking a number of different age groups and examining them at several points in time
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Zygote
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New cell formed by the union of an egg and sperm
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Embryo
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Developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs Weeks 2 through 8
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Fetus
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Developing individual from 8 weeks after conception until birth Movements become strong enough for the mother to sense them
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Neonate
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A new born child Neonate's strange appearance misshapen head Vernix- white greasy covering, for protection before birth Lanugo- soft fuzz, over the entire body
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Newborn reflexes
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Unlearned, involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli Rooting reflex- turn head toward things that touch cheek Sucking reflex- when things touch their lips Gag reflex- clear throat Startle reflex- flings arms, arches back when loud noises Babinski reflex- toes fan out when outer sole is touched
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Habitation
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Decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus ( measured by attention and heart rate in infants )
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Attachment
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The positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual
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Harry Harlow
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"Wire monkey versus cloth monkey " Demonstrates how important the caregiver's response is to the attachment ( greater response to the child, more secure the attachment )
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Authoritative parents
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Parents who are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain things to them
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Uninvolved parents
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Parents who show little interest in their children and are emotionally detached
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Authoritarian parents
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Parents who are rigid and punitive and value unquestioning obedience from their children
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Permissive parents
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Parents who give their children relaxed or inconsistent direction and, although they are warm, require little of them
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Patenting styles
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Permissive Authoritative Authoritarian Uninvolved
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Temperament
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A basic, inborn characteristics way of responding and behavioral style
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Erikson's stages
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Trust versus mistrust stage Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt stage Industry versus inferiority stage
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Industry versus inferiority stage
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According to Erickson, the last stage of childhood, during which children age 6 to 12 years may develop positive social interactions with others or may feel inadequate and become less sociable
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Initiative versus guilt stage
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According to Erickson, the period during which children ages 3 to 6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action
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Autonomy versus shame and doubt
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The period during which, according to Erickson, toddlers ( ages 1 1/2 to 3 years ) develop independence and autonomy if exploration and freedom are encouraged or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and over protected
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Trust versus mistrust stage
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According to Erickson, the first stage of psychosocial development, occurring from birth to age 1 1/2 years, during which time infants develop feelings of trust or lack of trust
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Piaget's stages of cognitive development
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Sensorimotor stage Preoperational stage Concrete operational stage Formal operational stage
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Sensorimotor stage
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According to piaget, the stage from birth to 2 years, during which a child has little competence in representing the environment by using images, language, or other symbols
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Preoperational stage
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According to piaget, the period from 2 to 7 years of age that is characterized by language development
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Concrete operational stage
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According to piaget, the period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism
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Formal operational stage
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According to piaget, the period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought
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Adolescence
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The development stage between childhood and adulthood
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Menopause
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The period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile
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Alzheimer's disease
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A progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities
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Concrete operational stage
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According to piaget, the period from 7 to 12 years of age that is characterized by logical thought and a loss of egocentrism
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Formal operational stage
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According to piaget, the period from age 12 to adulthood that is characterized by abstract thought
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Adolescence
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The development stage between childhood and adulthood
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Menopause
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The period during which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile
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Alzheimer's diseasea
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A progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities
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A teratogen is
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An environmental agent that can produce a birth defect
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According to piaget, when an infant recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer in sight, the infant has understood the principle of
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Object permanence
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An infant is considered preterm if it is born before week
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38
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As psychologists use the term, habitation means
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Decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus
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Baby Lisa automatically turns her head in the direction of a touch on the cheek. This is the ____________ reflex.
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Rooting
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Bonnie is three months old. Her parents are inconsistent in attending to her needs. Sometimes they are very attentive, feeding her promptly when she cries and comforting her when she seems upset. At other times, bonnie cries for a long time before her parents attend to her. Based on erikson's theory, it is likely that bonnie will develop
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A general sense of mistrust
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Harry Harlow completed a number of studies in which baby rhesus monkeys were raised with two artificial mothers. One of the mothers was made of wire and delivered food; the other was made of cloth and provided no food. Harlow found that when the infant monkeys were startled or fightened, they
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Preferred the cloth surrogate that did not provide food
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Joan's mom and dad believe that parents know best. They expect Joan to obey all parental rules without uttering a word, and they are quick to impose stern punishments if she does not comply. In baumrind's terms, joan's parents are
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Authoritarian
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The one- celled entity formed by the union of an egg and sperm is called a
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Zygote
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Which of the following is true about sequential research
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It combined cross sectional and longitudinal research
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Which of the following is true of cross sectional research
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It compares people of different ages at the same point in time
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____________ are rod shaped structures that contain all basic hereditary information
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Chromosomes
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____________ is the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, beginning at about age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys
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Puberty
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According to Erickson, adolescents are primarily engaged in resolving the psychosocial crisis of:
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Identity versus role confusion
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Laura and Celia are identical twins. They were adopted at birth by different families and raised in different environments. However, there are a lot of behavioral similarities between them. In the context of developmental psychology, which of the following best explains this phenomenon?
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Their similarities reflect the influence of nature on development.
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A __________ refers to a mental framework that organizes and guides a child's understanding of information relevant to gender.
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Gender schema
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Amelia is having a sexual intercourse with her husband; her breasts and vagina are expanding and her breathing rate has increased. Also, her muscle tension is increasing as she is preparing for orgasm. Amelia is in the middle which of the following phases of sexual responsiveness?
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Plateau phase
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Barry, the head of a finance organization, employed Abby due to her physical appearance and made sure she was assigned only simple tasks. However, this weakened Abby's real ability to perform at work. This exemplifies ______________ sexism.
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Benevolent
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Gender ___________ include the set of expectations regarding the appropriate behavior of men, on the other hand, and women, on the other.
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Roles
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Sexual behavior is abnormal if it is:
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Harmful
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The body's erogenous zones:
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Are especially sensitive to touch
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The interval after orgasm in which the body returns to its unaroused state, reversing the changes brought about by arousal is known as the ____________.
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Resolution stage
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The males and females sex organs are known as _______________.
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Genitals
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The period in which an arousing stimulus begins a sequence that prepares the genitals for sexual intercourse is called the _____________ phase.
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Excitement
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The testes produce _____________ and the ovaries produce ____________.
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Androgen; estrogen and progesterone
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Which alternative below best describes the method used in Masters' and Johnson's pioneering sexual response cycle research?
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Controlled laboratory research
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Which of the following is true about difference between men and women?
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Men and women are more similar to one another in most respects than dissimilar
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Which of the following refers to the " double standard" ?
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Premarital sex is permissible for males but not for females
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____________ are people who believe they were born with the body of the other gender
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Transsexuals
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________________ is the process by which an individual learns the rules and norms of appropriate behavior
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Socialization
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A (n) ____________ reinforcer refers to the removal of an unpleasant stimulus, putting on a sweater when your cold for example, which leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future
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Negative
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Classical conditioning applies mostly to ____________. Operant conditioning applies mainly to ______________.
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Biological responses; voluntary responses
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In classical conditioning, how are the neutral stimulus and the conditioned response related
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The neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus
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In Pavlov's study, the UCS was ______________; the neutral stimulus was _________________; and, finally, the CS was ______________.
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Meat, the bell; the bell
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June's cat runs to the kitchen at the sound of the electric can opener, which she has learned is used to open her food when her dinner is about to be served. The cat does not run when a blender is used, although it sounds similar. June's cat is demonstrating stimulus.
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Discrimination
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Mrs. Marin, a third-grade teacher, is instructing cursive writing. At first, she reinforces even crude attempts to reproduce letters with an encouraging word; as time goes on, though, she reinforces only well-formed letters. By reinforcing progressively better attempts at writing letters, Mrs. Martin is using:
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shaping
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Psychologists use the term ____________ to refer to a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from experience.
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learning
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The process by which a stimulus increases the likelihood that a preceding behavior will be repeated is called:
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reinforcement
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The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning is known as __________.
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spontaneous recovery
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The _________ is an approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning.
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cognitive learning theory
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Which of the following is an example of positive punishment?
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getting a speeding ticket
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_______________ is a formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable conducts and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.
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behavior modification
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_______________ is learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.
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Operant conditioning
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_____________ occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
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Extinction
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____________ stimulus is a stimulus that does not naturally bring about the response of interest.
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neutral
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A graduate student is using a statistical method of identifying associations among a large number of variables to reveal more general patterns. She is performing a ____________ analysis.
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factor
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According to Freud, the developing child must negotiate the Oedipal conflict during which stage of psychosexual development?
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Phallic
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Dr. Plater believes that personality is simply the sum of learned responses to the external environment. Dr. Plater endorses the approach to personality.
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learning
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From around age 12 to 18 months until 3 years of age-a period when the emphasis in Western cultures is on toilet training-a child enters the ________________ stage.
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anal
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How do neo-Freudians' thought differ from Freud's original theory?
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The neo-Fraudians tended to emphasize the importance of the ego rather that that of the id.
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Pearl is kind, cooperative, appreciative, and sympathetic. Ruby is outgoing, talkative, fun-loving, and sociable. Pearl probably scores high on the Big Five dimension of _________, whereas Ruby likely scores high on _________.
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agreeableness; extraversion
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Rhiannon is confident she can complete a difficult problem set in one of her engineering courses. Rhiannon has high self-:
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efficacy
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The TAT and the Rorschach are __________ tests of personality.
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projective
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The ____________ is part of the personality that contains the memories, knowledge, beliefs, feelings, urges, drives, and instincts of which the individual is not aware.
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unconscious
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The ________ is the part of the personality that provides a buffer between the id and the outside world.
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ego
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Which approach to personality takes the most optimistic view of people's nature ----- that individuals are essentially "good"?
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Humanistic
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Which of Freud's personality structures is CORRECTLY described?
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Id-- consists of primitve, instinctual urges
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Which of the following defense mechanisms is used when people provides self-justifying explanations in place of the actual, but threatening, reason for their behavior?
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Rationalization
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Which of the following is NOT one of the " Big Five " personality dimensions?
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Psychoticism
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__________ approaches to personality are approaches that assume that personality is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which people have little awareness and over which they have no control.
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Psychodynamic
