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Learning

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The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

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Associative learning

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Learning that certain event occur together. The events may be two stimuli( as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences(as in operant conditioning)

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Stimulus

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Any event or situation that evokes a response

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Cognitive learning

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The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

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Classical conditioning

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A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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Respondent behavior

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Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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Neutral stimulus (NS)

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In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

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Unconditioned response (UR)

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In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response(such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus(US)(such as food in the mouth)

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Unconditioned stimulus (US

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In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response(UR)

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Conditioned response (CR)

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In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral(but now conditioned) stimulus(CS)

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Conditioned stimulus (CS)

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In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus(US), comes to trigger a conditioned response(CR)

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Acquisition

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In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

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Extinction

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The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

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Spontaneous recovery

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The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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Generalization

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The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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Discrimination

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In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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Pavlov's Legacy

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Many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms. Learning can be studied objectively

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Operant conditioning

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A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

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Law of Effect

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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Reinforcement

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In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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Shaping

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An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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Positive reinforcement

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Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

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Negative reinforcement

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Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment)

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Primary reinforcer

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An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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Conditioned reinforcer

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A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer

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Continuous reinforcement

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Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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Reinforcement schedule

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A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

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Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

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Fixed-ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

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Variable-ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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Fixed-interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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Variable-interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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Punishment

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An event that tends to decrease the behavior it follows

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Operant behavior

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Behavior that operated on the environment, producing consequences.

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Cognitive map

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A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

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Latent learning

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Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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Intrinsic motivation

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A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

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Extrinsic motivation

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A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

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Observational learning

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Learning by observing others

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Modeling

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The process of observing and imitating specific behavior(Bandura)

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Mirror neurons

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Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's actions may enable imitation and empathy

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Prosocial behavior

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Positive, constructive helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

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Memory

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The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

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Recall

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A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

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Recognition

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A measure of memory in which the person needs only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test

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Relearning

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A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning a material again

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Encoding

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The processing of information into the memory system-for example, by extracting meaning

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Storage

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The retention of encoded information over time

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Retrieval

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The process of getting information out of memory storage

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Sensory memory

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The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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Short-term memory

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Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

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Long-term memory

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The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Included knowledge, skills, and experiences

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Working memory

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A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

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Explicit memory

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Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare(declarative memory)

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Effortful processing

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Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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Automatic processing

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Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meaning

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Implicit memory

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Retention independent of conscious recollection(declarative memory)

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Iconic memory

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A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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Echoic memory

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A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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Chunking

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Organizing items into familiar manageable units; often occurs automatically

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Mnemonics

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Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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Spacing effect

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The tendency for disturbed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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Testing effect

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Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as retrieval practice effect, or test-enhanced learning

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Shallow processing

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Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of the words

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Deep processing

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Encoding semantically based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

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Hippocampus

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A neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

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Flashbulb memory

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A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

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An increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

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Priming

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The activation, often unconsciously, of particular association in memory

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Mood-congruent memory

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The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

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Serial position effect

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Our tendency to recall best the last(a recency effect) and first items(a primary effect) in a list

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Anterograde amnesia

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An inability to form new memories

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Retrograde amnesia

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An inability to retrieve information from one's past

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Proactive interference

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The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

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Retroactive interference

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The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

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Repression

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In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories

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Misinformation effect

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Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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Source amnesia

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Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined.(Also called source misattributiong) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

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Deja vu

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That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

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If you have a frightening experience immediately after hearing a strange sound, your fear may be aroused when you hear that sound again. This best illustrates:

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Classical conditioning

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Walter was bitten by a dog when he was 5 years old. To this day, he will not pet dogs, however, he will pet cats. This reaction to cats best illustrates:

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Discrimination

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In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally, naturally and automatically, triggers a response is called a(n):

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Unconditioned stimulus (US)

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One of Pavlov's major contributions to the field of psychology was to show how:

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The discipline of psychology could be based on objective laboratory methods

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In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus is called the:

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Conditioned response (CR)

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For professional baseball players, swinging at a pitched ball is reinforced with a home run on a _____________ schedule.

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Variable-ratio

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To reduce the self-destructive behavior of some children, a therapist might squirt water in the children's faces whenever they bite themselves. The squirt of water is a:

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Positive punishment

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_______________________ involves any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

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Positive reinforcement

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The law of effect states that rewarded behavior is likely to recur and is this psychologist's principle.

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Thorndike

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Mirror neurons are found in the brain's ______________ and are believed to be the neural basis for ______________.

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Frontal lobe; observational learning

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If a child is watching a favorite sibling getting scolded for misbehavior, which type of neuron is likely to be activated in an empathetic response to this observation?

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Mirror neuron

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Studying for your psychology test requires _______________. It takes attention and conscious effort, but pays off with lasting and accessible memories.

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Effortful processing

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Short-term memory is to _____________ as long-term memory is to _____________.

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Fleeting; permanent

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A multiple-choice test is a good example of:

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Recognition

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The _____________ is the neural center involved in processing explicit memories for storage.

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Hippocampus

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Mable has Alzheimer's disease and her _____________ memories for people and events are lost, but she is able to display an ability to form new _____________ memories by being repeatedly shown words.

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Explicit; implicit

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Lara is trying to remember events from her life as an 18-month-old. However, as hard as she might try, she has no conscious memory for anything that occurred before her third birthday. This is likely due to the fact that her ______________, which is involved in storing explicit memories, was not fully developed at that age.

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Hippocampus

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_______________ occurs when something you learn now interferes with your ability to recall something you learned earlier.

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Retroactive interference

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Researchers have found that a major difference between memories derived from real experiences versus imagined memories is:

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Real memories have more detail.

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In a motorcycle accident, Adam suffered a brain injury that makes it impossible for him to form new memories. He can, however, remember his life experiences before the accident. Adam's memory difficulty most clearly illustrates:

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Encoding failure

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The surprising ease with which people form false memories best illustrates that encoding and retrieval involve:

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Memory construction

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Several months after watching a science fiction movie about space travel and alien abduction, Steve began to remember that aliens had abducted him and had subjected him to many of the horrors portrayed in the movie. His mistaken recall best illustrates:

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Source amnesia

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Ivan recently suffered a severe stroke and is no longer able to remember events from his childhood. His memory problems are related to:

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Retrieval failure

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Researchers have found that classical conditioning can be used to produce an immune response in patients. Of the following pairings, which would be the most likely to produce this response?

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Repeated pairing of lemonade with the immune enhancing drug

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Jane had Leukemia as a child and had to undergo numerous bouts of chemotherapy. The chemotherapy always made her nauseous. As she underwent a year of treatment, the waiting room started to make her nauseous. The chemotherapy is:

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The unconditioned stimulus.

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You received a great money-saving credit card offer in the mail complete with a rewards program. You read on further to find that the one dollar for every mile spent may not be such a great offer after all since getting a $500.00 airline ticket only happens after you acquire 25,000 miles or spend $25,000. This is a ________ schedule.

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Fixed-ratio

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Classical and operant conditioning are similar in many ways. Which of the following processes does NOT apply to both types of learning?

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Involuntary responses to stimuli

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Airline frequent flyer programs that reward customers with a free flight after every 25,000 miles of travel illustrate the use of a _____________ schedule of reinforcement.

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Fixed-ratio

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Which of the following factors would be important in the acquisition of aggressive behaviors through observational learning?

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Models who commit violent acts but go unpunished

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Even after we learn the material, _______________ increases retention.

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Overlearning

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The three-stage model of memory developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin has been criticized because it does not take into account:

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That some information is processed into long-term memory without our conscious awareness.

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Which of the following is believed to be the neural basis for learning and memory?

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Long-term potentiation

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Which of the following will you most likely store as an implicit memory?

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Your conditioned fear of guns

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In an effort to recall his early life experiences, Aaron formed vivid mental images of the rooms in his childhood home. Aaron was engaged in the process of:

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Priming

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In the process of retrieving a specific memory from a web of associations, a person needs to activate one of the strands that leads to it. This known as:

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Priming

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Lonnie often has vivid dreams. In the morning, he can recall them in great detail. This sometimes gets him in trouble, because he can't figure out if he is remembering a dream or something that he actually experienced. This problem is known as:

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Source amnesia

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Research on memory construction reveals that memories:

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Reflect a person's biases and assumptions

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